Several species of the Australo-Papuan genus Mixophyes (barred frogs) have declined markedly and are now considered threatened. During field investigations into the possible causes of declines, we observed oviposition and numerous egg masses (700+) of the four species from southeast Australia. From these and published observations there are two markedly different ovipositional processes within Mixophyes. In M. coggeri, M. fasciolatus and M. iteratus eggs are laid in water then deposited terrestrially, propelled from the foot of the floating female onto a near-vertical or overhanging stream bank (Ovipositional Process 1). In M. balbus and M. fleayi eggs are deposited aquatically in the shallow riffle zones of small streams, either into a rounded nest depression in the substrate (Ovipositional Process 2A), or occasionally directly onto bedrock (Ovipositional Process 2B). These observations of ovipositing and egg masses show that there are three reproductive modes in the genus: mode 2 - eggs and exotrophic tadpoles in lotic water (M. fleayi), mode 4 - eggs and early larval stages in constructed basins, exotrophic tadpoles in streams subsequent to flooding – (M. balbus and M. fleayi), and mode 18 (terrestrial eggs above water, exotrophic hatchlings move to water (M. carbinensis, M. coggeri, M. fasciolatus, M. iteratus and M. schevilli). Mixophyes fasciolatus was the only species to use both lentic as well as lotic waters for larval development. For the Australian species amplexus was axillary, occasionally shifting during the process of oviposition to inguinal. Amplexus for the New Guinean M. hihihorlo, is unknown, as is the ovipositional process and reproductive mode. The phylogenetic significance of our observations is that Mixophyes species have non-foamy egg masses, which accords with their recent placement in the family Myobatrachidae. However, no other members of this family show either of the described processes of oviposition, and furthermore we observed amplexus in Mixophyes to be axillary whereas all other reports for myobatrachids are of inguinal amplexus. Our findings have consequences for management of the habitat of barred frogs, three of which are considered threatened. The construction of creek crossings (for vehicles, bikes, horse riding, pedestrians) in riffle zones, the trampling of creek banks by cattle, horses, pigs and humans and changes to the hydrology of creeks by damming or regulating flows that alter the connection between hydrology and stream bank structures, are all likely to have a negative impact on reproductive success.
Altig, R. and McDiarmid, R.W. 2007. Morphological diversity and evolution of egg and clutch structure in amphibians. Herpetological Monographs 21: 1–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1655/06-005.1
Anstis, M. 2002. Tadpoles of South-eastern Australia – a Guide with Keys. New Holland Publishers, Sydney, Australia.
,
Tadpoles of South-eastern Australia – a Guide with Keys
Anstis, M. 2013. Tadpoles and Frogs of Australia. CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne.
,
Tadpoles and Frogs of Australia
Banks, C., Birkett, J., Young, S., Vincent, M. and Hawkes, T. 2003. Breeding and management of the great barred frog, Mixophyes fasciolatus, at Melbourne Zoo. Herpetofauna 33: 2–12.
Breeding and management of the great barred frog, Mixophyes fasciolatus, at Melbourne Zoo
, Herpetofauna
, vol. 33
(pg. 2
-12
) Barker, J. and Grigg, G.C. 1977. A Field Guide to Australian Frogs. Rigby Limited, Australia.
,
A Field Guide to Australian Frogs
Barker, J., Grigg, G.C. and Tyler, M.J. 1995. A Field Guide to Australian Frogs. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton, NSW.
,
A Field Guide to Australian Frogs
Beschta, R.L. and Platts, W.S. 1986. Morphological features of small streams: significance and function. Water Resources Bulletin 22: 370–379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.1986.tb01891.x
Corben, C.J. and Ingram, G.J. 1987. A new barred river frog (Myobatrachidae: Mixophyes). Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 25: 233–237.
A new barred river frog (Myobatrachidae: Mixophyes)
, Memoirs of the Queensland Museum
, vol. 25
(pg. 233
-237
) Coughran, J. 2013. Biology of the mountain crayfish Euastacus sulcatus Riek, 1951 (Crustacea: Parastacidae) in New South Wales, Australia. Journal of Threatened Taxa 5: 4840–4853. http://dx.doi.org/10.11609/JoTT.o3647.4840-53
Coughran J. and Furse J.M. in press. Conservation of freshwater crayfish in Australia. Crustacean Research.
Cummins, K.W. 1986. Riparian influence on stream ecosystems. Pp. 45–55 in Campbell, I.C. (ed), Stream Protection: The Management of Rivers for Instream Uses. Water Studies Centre, Chisholm Institute of Technology, Melbourne.
,
Stream Protection: The Management of Rivers for Instream Uses
(pg. 45
-55
) Davies, M.M. 2003a. Australian ground frogs (Limnodynastidae). Pp. 139–146 in Duellman, W.E. (ed), Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Second Edition, Volume 6. Amphibians. Gale Group, Detroit.
,
Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Second Edition, Volume 6. Amphibians
(pg. 139
-146
) Davies, M.M. 2003b. Australian toadlets and water frogs (Myobatrachidae). Pp. 147–154 in Duellman, W.E. (ed), Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Second Edition, Volume 6. Amphibians. Gale Group, Detroit.
,
Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia, Second Edition, Volume 6. Amphibians
(pg. 147
-154
) Donnellan, S.C., Mahony, M.J. and Davies, M. 1990. A new species of Mixophyes (Anura: Leptodactylidae) and first record of the genus in New Guinea. Herpetologica 46: 266–274.
A new species of Mixophyes (Anura: Leptodactylidae) and first record of the genus in New Guinea
, Herpetologica
, vol. 46
(pg. 266
-274
) Donnellan, S.C. and Mahony, M.J. 2004. Allozyme, chromosomal and morphological variability in the Litoria lesueuri species group (Anura: Hylidae), including a description of a new species. Australian Journal of Zoology 52: 1–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ZO02069
Duellman, W.E. and Trueb, L. 1994. Biology of Amphibians. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
,
Biology of Amphibians
Faivovich, J., Haddad, C.F., Garcia, P.C., Frost, D.R., Campbell, J.A., & Wheeler, W.C. 2005. Systematic review of the frog family Hylidae, with special reference to Hylinae: phylogenetic analysis and taxonomic revision. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 294: 1–240. http://dx.doi.org/10.1206/0003-0090(2005)294%5B0001:SROTFF%5D2.0.CO;2
Fletcher, J.J. 1889. Observations on the oviposition and habits of certain Australian batrachians. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales Series 2 4: 357–387.
Observations on the oviposition and habits of certain Australian batrachians
, Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales Series 2
, vol. 4
(pg. 357
-387
) Ford, L.S. and Cannatella, D.C. 1993. The major clades of frogs. Herpetological Monographs 7: 94–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1466954
Frost, D.R., Grant, T., Faivovich, J., Bain, R.H., Haass, A., Haddad, C.F.B., de Sa, R.O., Channing, A., Wilkinson, M., Donnellan, S.C., Raxworthy, C.J., Campbell, J.A., Blotto, B.L., Moler, P.L., Drewes, R.C., Nussbaum, R.A., Lynch, J.D., Green, D.M. and Wheeler, W.C. 2006. The amphibian tree of life. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 297: 1–370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297%5B0001:TATOL%5D2.0.CO;2
Furse J.M. 2010. Ecosystem engineering by Euastacus sulcatus (Decapoda: Parastacidae) in the hinterland of the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. PhD Thesis. Griffith School of Environment. Griffith University. Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
Gillespie, G. and Hines, H. 1999. Status of temperate riverine frogs in south-eastern Australia. Pp. 109–130 in Campbell, A. (ed) Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs. Environment Australia, Canberra.
,
Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs
(pg. 109
-130
) Gosner, K.L. 1960. A simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification. Herpetologica 16: 183–190.
A simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification
, Herpetologica
, vol. 16
(pg. 183
-190
) Haddad, C.F.B. and Prado C.P.A. 2005. Reproductive modes in frogs and their unexpected diversity in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. Bioscience 55: 724–724. http://dx.doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055%5B0207:RMIFAT%5D2.0.CO;2
Hero, J.-M., Morrison, C., Gillespie, G., Roberts, J.D., Newell, D., Meyer, E., McDonald, K., Lemckert, F., Mahony, M., Osborne, W., Hines, H., Richards, S., Hoskin, C., Clarke, J., Doak, N. and Shoo, L. 2007. Overview of the conservation status of Australian frogs. Pacific Conservation Biology 12: 313–320.
Overview of the conservation status of Australian frogs
, Pacific Conservation Biology
, vol. 12
(pg. 313
-320
) Heyer, R.W. and Leim, D.S. 1976. Analysis of the intergeneric relationships of the Australian frog family Myobatrachidae. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 233: 1–29.
Analysis of the intergeneric relationships of the Australian frog family Myobatrachidae
, Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology
, vol. 233
(pg. 1
-29
) Hines, H.B., Mahony, M. and McDonald, K. 1999. An assessment of frog declines in wet subtropical Australia. Pp. 44–63 in Campbell, A. (ed) Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs. Environment Australia, Canberra.
,
Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs
(pg. 44
-63
) Horton, P. 1982. Diversity and systematic significance of anuran tongue musculature. Copeia 1982: 595–602. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1444659
Hoser, R.T. 1989. Australian Reptiles and Frogs. Pierson and Company, Mosman, NSW.
,
Australian Reptiles and Frogs
Hoskin, C. and Hero, J.-M. 2008. Rainforest Frogs of the Wet Tropics, Northeast Australia. Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia.
,
Rainforest Frogs of the Wet Tropics, Northeast Australia
Hoskin, C.J. 2010. Breeding behaviour of the barred frog Mixophyes coggeri. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum | Nature 55: 1–7.
Breeding behaviour of the barred frog Mixophyes coggeri
, Memoirs of the Queensland Museum | Nature
, vol. 55
(pg. 1
-7
) IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. <www.iucnredlist.org≯. Downloaded on 7 November 2012. www.iucnredlist.org
Knowles, R., Hines, H., Thumm, K., Mahony, M. and Cunningham, M. 1998. Oviposition of the barred frogs (Mixophyes species) in southeastern Australia, with implications for management. Abstracts from the 26th Annual General Meeting of the Australian Society of Herpetologists, Yungaburra, Queensland, 1998. (Also available in the Newsletter of the Australian Society of Herpetologists 40 May 2003, p26. http://www.australiansocietyofherpetologists.org/pdf/news40.pdf. Accessed 16 Sep 2011) http://www.australiansocietyofherpetologists.org/pdf/news40.pdf
Lee, M.S.Y. and Jamieson, B.G.M. 1992. The ultrastructure of spermatozoa of three species of myobatrachid frogs (Anura, Amphibia) with phylogenetic considerations. Acta Zoologica 73: 213-222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-6395.1992.tb01085.x
Lemckert, F. 1999. Impacts of selective logging on frogs in a forested area of northern New South Wales. Biological Conservation 89: 321–328. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00117-7
Lewis, B. 2000. A breeding observation of the stuttering frog (Mixophyes balbus) in northern New South Wales. Herpetofauna 30: 30–33.
A breeding observation of the stuttering frog (Mixophyes balbus) in northern New South Wales
, Herpetofauna
, vol. 30
(pg. 30
-33
) Lynch, J.D. 1973. The transition from archaic to advanced frogs. Pp. 133–183 in Vial, J.L. (ed) Evolutionary Biology of Anurans. University of Missouri Press, Columbia.
,
Evolutionary Biology of Anurans
(pg. 133
-183
) Magnusson, W.E., & Hero, J.M. 1991. Predation and the evolution of complex oviposition behaviour in Amazon rainforest frogs. Oecologia 86: 310–318. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00317595
Mahony, M., Donnellan, S.C., Richards, S.J. and McDonald, K. 2006. Species boundaries among barred river frogs, Mixophyes (Anura: Myobatrachidae) in north-eastern Australia, with descriptions of two new species. Zootaxa 1228: 35–60.
Species boundaries among barred river frogs, Mixophyes (Anura: Myobatrachidae) in north-eastern Australia, with descriptions of two new species
, Zootaxa
, vol. 1228
(pg. 35
-60
) Mahony, M.J. 1993. The status of frogs in the Watagan Mountains area the central coast of New South Wales. pp. 257–264 in Lunney, D. and Ayers, D. (eds) Herpetology in Australia. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney.
,
Herpetology in Australia
(pg. 257
-264
) Malone, J.H. 2004. Reproduction in three species of Smilisca from Costa Rica. Journal of Herpetology 38:27–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1670/32-03A
Malone, J.H. 2006. Ecology of the basin construction reproductive mode in Smilisca sordida (Anura: Hylidae). Journal of Herpetology 40: 230–239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1670/140-05A.1
Marantelli, G. 1995. A captive spawning of the great barred frog, Mixophyes fasciolatus. In the Spotlight – News from the Victorian Frog Group 1:12–13.
A captive spawning of the great barred frog, Mixophyes fasciolatus
, In the Spotlight – News from the Victorian Frog Group
, vol. 1
(pg. 12
-13
) Martin, A.A. 1967. Australian anuran life histories: some evolutionary and ecological aspects. Pp. 175–191 in Weatherby, A.H. (ed.) Australian Inland Waters and their Fauna. ANU Press, Canberra, Australia.
,
Australian Inland Waters and their Fauna
(pg. 175
-191
) Menzies, J.I. 2006. The Frogs of New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria
,
The Frogs of New Guinea and the Solomon Islands
Meyer, E., Hines, H. and Hero, J.-M. 2001. Wet Forest Frogs of South-east Queensland. Griffith University, Brisbane.
,
Wet Forest Frogs of South-east Queensland
Moore, J.A. 1961. The frogs of eastern New South Wales. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 121: 149–386.
The frogs of eastern New South Wales
, Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History
, vol. 121
(pg. 149
-386
) Newell, D A., Goldingay, R.L., and Brooks, L.O. 2013. Population recovery following decline in an endangered stream-breeding frog (Mixophyes fleayi) from subtropical Australia. PloS One 8: e58559. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0058559
O’Reilly, W.K. and Hines, H.B. 2002. Temporal patterns of calling in Fleay's barred frog Mixophyes fleayi at Cunningham's Gap, south-eastern Queensland. Pp. 53–58 in Nattrass, A.E.O. (ed) Frogs in the Community: Proceedings of the Brisbane Symposium 13–14 February 1999. Queensland Frog Society, Brisbane.
,
Temporal patterns of calling in Fleay's barred frog Mixophyes fleayi at Cunningham's Gap, south-eastern Queensland
(pg. 53
-58
) Parris, K.M. and Norton, T.W. 1997. The significance of State Forests for conservation of Litoria pearsoniana (Copland) and associated amphibians. Pp. 521–26 in Hale, P. and Lamb, D. (eds) Conservation Outside Nature Reserves. Centre for Conservation Biology, University of Queensland, Brisbane.
,
Conservation Outside Nature Reserves
(pg. 521
-26
) Parris, K.M. 2002. The distribution and habitat requirements of the great barred frog (Mixophyes fasciolatus). Wildlife Research 29: 469–474. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/WR01107
Pusey, B.J., Kennard, M.J., and Arthington, A.H. 2004. Freshwater fishes of north-eastern Australia. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Australia.
,
Freshwater fishes of north-eastern Australia
Pusey, B.J. and Arthington, A.H. 2003. Importance of the riparian zone to the conservation and management of freshwater fish: a review. Marine and Freshwater Research 54: 1–16.
Importance of the riparian zone to the conservation and management of freshwater fish: a review
, Marine and Freshwater Research
, vol. 54
(pg. 1
-16
) Pyron, R.A. 2014. Biogeographic analysis reveals ancient continental vicariance and recent oceanic dispersal in amphibians. Systematic Biology 63: 779-797. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syu042
Pyron, R.A. and Wiens, J.J. 2001. A large scale phylogeny of Amphibia including over 2800 species and a revised classification of extant frogs, salamanders and caecilians. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 61: 543-583.
A large scale phylogeny of Amphibia including over 2800 species and a revised classification of extant frogs, salamanders and caecilians
, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
, vol. 61
(pg. 543
-583
) Resetarits, W.J. 1996. Oviposition site choice and life history evolution. American Zoologist, 36: 205–215.
Oviposition site choice and life history evolution
, American Zoologist
, vol. 36
(pg. 205
-215
) Richards, S.J. and Alford, R.A. 1992. Nest construction by an Australian rainforest frog of the Litoria lesueuri complex (Anura: Hylidae). Copeia 1992: 1120–1123. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1446653
Richards, S.J. 1993. Functional significance of nest construction by an Australian rainforest frog: a preliminary analysis. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 34: 89–93.
Functional significance of nest construction by an Australian rainforest frog: a preliminary analysis
, Memoirs of the Queensland Museum
, vol. 34
(pg. 89
-93
) Robinson, M. 1993. A Field Guide to Frogs of Australia. Reed, Chatswood, NSW. Roelants, K., Gower, D.J., Wilkinson, M., Loader, S.P., Biju, S.D., Guillaume, K., Moriau, L. and Bossuyt, F. 2007. Global patterns of diversification in the history of modern amphibians. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104: 887-892. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0608378104
Seymour, R.S., Mahony, M.J. and Knowles, R. 1995. Respiration of embryos and larvae of the terrestrially breeding frog Kyarranus loveridgei. Herpetologica 51: 369–376.
Respiration of embryos and larvae of the terrestrially breeding frog Kyarranus loveridgei
, Herpetologica
, vol. 51
(pg. 369
-376
) Stratford, D.S., Grigg, G.C., McCallum, H.I. and Hines, H.B. 2010. Breeding ecology and phenology of two stream breeding myobatrachid frogs (Mixophyes fleayi and M. fasciolatus) in south-east Queensland. Australian Zoologist 35: 189–197. http://dx.doi.org/10.7882/AZ.2010.007
Straughan, I.R. 1966. An analysis of species recognition and species isolation in certain Queensland frogs. PhD Thesis, University of Queensland.
Straughan, I.R. 1968. A taxonomic review of the genus Mixophyes, (Anura, Leptodactylidae). Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 93: 52–59.
A taxonomic review of the genus Mixophyes, (Anura, Leptodactylidae)
, Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales
, vol. 93
(pg. 52
-59
) Stuart, N., Hoffmann, M., Chanson, J.S., Cox, N.A., Berridge, R.J., Ramani, P. and Young, B.E. 2008. Threatened Amphibians of the World. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.
,
Threatened Amphibians of the World
Treadwell, S., Koehn, J., and Bunn, S. 1999. Large woody debris and other aquatic habitat. Pp. 79–96 in Lovett, S., and Price, P. (eds) Riparian Land Management Technical Guidelines Volume One: Principles of Sound Management. Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
,
Riparian Land Management Technical Guidelines Volume One: Principles of Sound Management
(pg. 79
-96
) Tyler, M.J. 1985. Reproductive modes in Australian Amphibia. Pp. 265–267 in Grigg, G.C. and Shine, R. (eds) Biology of Australasian Frogs and Reptiles Surrey Beatty in association with The Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Chipping Norton, NSNSWW.
,
Biology of Australasian Frogs and Reptiles
(pg. 265
-267
) Tyler, M.J. 1994. Australian Frogs. A Natural History. Reed Books, Chatswood, NSW.
,
Australian Frogs. A Natural History
Watson, G.F. and Martin, A.A. 1973. Life history, larval morphology and relationships of Australian leptodactylid frogs. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 97: 33–45.
Life history, larval morphology and relationships of Australian leptodactylid frogs
, Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia
, vol. 97
(pg. 33
-45
) Wells, K.D. 2007. The Ecology and Behaviour of Amphibians. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA.
,
The Ecology and Behaviour of Amphibians
This content is only available as a PDF.
