The Growling Grass Frog Litoria raniformis has undergone population declines throughout its range over the past 20 years and is listed as a threatened species both in Victoria and nationally. The species was last recorded in 1979 in the area now occupied by the Portland Aluminium Smelter in southwestern Victoria, but the reasons for its disappearance from the area are unclear. Approximately 50 wetlands remain in the buffer zone of the smelter and we investigated the suitability of 20 of these wetlands for the reintroduction of the species. We measured a set of habitat parameters at the smelter (Smelter sites) and at five wetlands in south-western Victoria that had recent records of Growling Grass Frogs (Extant sites). Discriminant function analysis identified a number of variables that discriminated between Extant and Smelter sites, particularly the extent of algae and the percentage of shoreline covered by bare ground, by short terrestrial vegetation and by other cover types. We recommend the planting of emergent aquatic vegetation and the encouragement of floating and submerged vegetation to increase habitat suitability for Growling Grass Frogs in the smelter wetlands.

Adams, M.J. 1999. Correlated factors in amphibian decline: exotic species and habitat change in western Washington. Journal of Wildlife Management 63: 1162-1171.
,
Correlated factors in amphibian decline: exotic species and habitat change in western Washington
,
Journal of Wildlife Management
, vol.
63
(pg.
1162
-
1171
)
Alcoa and Kinhill 1980. Alcoa Portland Aluminium Smelter: Environmental Effects Statement. Alcoa of Australia and Kinhill Planners: Melbourne, Victoria.
,
Alcoa Portland Aluminium Smelter: Environmental Effects Statement
Anstis, M. 2002. Tadpoles of South-eastern Australia: a Guide with Keys. New Holland Publishers, Frenchs Forest.
,
Tadpoles of South-eastern Australia: a Guide with Keys
Boulton, I.C., Cooke, J.A. and Johnson, M.S. 1994. Experimental fluoride accumulation and toxicity in the short-tailed field vole (Microtus agresti). Journal of the Zoological Society of London 234: 409-421.
,
Experimental fluoride accumulation and toxicity in the short-tailed field vole (Microtus agresti)
,
Journal of the Zoological Society of London
, vol.
234
(pg.
409
-
421
)
Brake, L., Clark, I., Clay, R. and Savarton, F. 1991. The Master Plan for the Smelter in the Park. Centre for Environmental and Recreation Management, University of South Australia.
Carr, L.W. and Fahrig, L. 2001. Effect of road traffic on two amphibian species of differing vagility. Conservation Biology 15: 1071-1078.
,
Effect of road traffic on two amphibian species of differing vagility
,
Conservation Biology
, vol.
15
(pg.
1071
-
1078
)
Christy, M.T. and Dickman, C.R. 2002. Effects of salinity on tadpoles of the green and golden bell frog (Litoria aurea). Amphibian-Reptilia 23: 1-11.
,
Effects of salinity on tadpoles of the green and golden bell frog (Litoria aurea)
,
Amphibian-Reptilia
, vol.
23
(pg.
1
-
11
)
Clay, R., Clark, I. and Brake, L. 1994. A report on The Wetlands Workshop held at The Smelter in the Park, 8-10 December 1993.
Cogger, H.G. 2000. Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. 6th edition. Reed Books, Melbourne.
,
Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia
Coulson, G., Hill, J., McKenzie, J. and Walters, B. 2000. The Smelter in the Park: managing wildlife for biodiversity. Pp. 360-371 in Nature Conservation 5: Nature Conservation in Production Environments: Managing the Matrix, edited by J.L. Craig, N. Mitchell, and D.A. Saunders. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton.
,
Production Environments: Managing the Matrix
(pg.
360
-
371
)
Cummins, C.P. 1986. Effects of aluminium and low pH on growth and development in Rana temporaria tadpoles. Oecologia 69: 248-252.
,
Effects of aluminium and low pH on growth and development in Rana temporaria tadpoles
,
Oecologia
, vol.
69
(pg.
248
-
252
)
Daly, G., Johnson, P. , Malolakis, G., Hyatt, A. and Pietsch, R. 2008. Reintroduction of Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea to Pambula on the south coast of New South Wales. Australian Zoologist 34: 261-270.
,
Reintroduction of Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea to Pambula on the south coast of New South Wales
,
Australian Zoologist
, vol.
34
(pg.
261
-
270
)
Denton, J.S., Hitchings, S.P., Beebee, T.J.C. and Gent, A. 1997. A recovery program for the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) in Britain. Conservation Biology 11: 1329-1338.
,
A recovery program for the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) in Britain
,
Conservation Biology
, vol.
11
(pg.
1329
-
1338
)
Draper, R. 2001. The Growling Grass Frog Project (Warty Bell Frog) needs your help. Land for Wildlife News: 4(9), Department of Natural Resources and Environment: Victoria.
,
Land for Wildlife News: 4(9)
Ferraro T.J. and Burgin, S. 1993. Review of environmental factors influencing the decline of Australian frogs. Pp. 205-216 in Herpetology in Australia. A Diverse Discipline, edited by D. Lunney and D. Ayers. Royal Zoological Society of NSW, Sydney.
,
Herpetology in Australia
(pg.
205
-
216
)
Findlay, C.S.T. and Bourdages, J. 2000. Response time of wetland biodiversity to road construction on adjacent lands. Conservation Biology 14: 86-94.
,
Response time of wetland biodiversity to road construction on adjacent lands
,
Conservation Biology
, vol.
14
(pg.
86
-
94
)
Freda, J. and Dunson, W.A. 1986. Effects of low pH and other chemical variables on the local distribution of amphibians. Copeia 1986(2): 454-466.
,
Effects of low pH and other chemical variables on the local distribution of amphibians
,
Copeia 1986
, vol.
2
(pg.
454
-
466
)
Griffith, B., Scott, J.M., Carpenter, J.W. and Reed, C. 1989. Translocation as a species conservation tool: status and strategy. Science 245: 477-480.
,
Translocation as a species conservation tool: status and strategy
,
Science
, vol.
245
(pg.
477
-
480
)
Hamer, A.J., Lane, S.J. and Mahony, M.J. 2002. Management of freshwater wetlands for the endangered green and golden bell frog (Litoria aurea): roles of habitat determinants and space. Biological Conservation 106: 413-424.
,
Management of freshwater wetlands for the endangered green and golden bell frog (Litoria aurea): roles of habitat determinants and space
,
Biological Conservation
, vol.
106
(pg.
413
-
424
)
Heard, G.W., Robertson, P. and Scroggie, M. P. 2008. Microhabitat preferences of the endangered Growling Grass Frog Litoria raniformis in southern Victoria. Australian Zoologist 34: 414-425.
,
Microhabitat preferences of the endangered Growling Grass Frog Litoria raniformis in southern Victoria
,
Australian Zoologist
, vol.
34
(pg.
414
-
425
)
Hero, J-M., Littlejohn, M. and Marantelli, G. 1991. Frogwatch Field Guide to Victorian Frogs. Wetlands Conservation Program, Department of Conservation and Environment: Victoria.
,
Frogwatch Field Guide to Victorian Frogs
Hero, J-M., Morrison, C., Gillespie, G., Roberts, J.D., Newell, D., Meyer, E., McDonald, K., Lemckert, F. , Mahony, M., Osborne, W. , Hines, H., Richards, S., Hoskins, C., Clarke, J., Doak, N. and Shoo, L. 2006. Overview of the conservation status of Australian frogs. Pacific Conservation Biology 12: 313-320.
,
Overview of the conservation status of Australian frogs
,
Pacific Conservation Biology
, vol.
12
(pg.
313
-
320
)
Hill, J., Brake, L. and Clark, I. 2000. The Smelter in the Park: using environmental care to improve business outcomes. Pp. 345-359 in Nature Conservation 5: Nature Conservation in Production Environments: Managing the Matrix, edited by J.L. Craig, N. Mitchell, and D.A. Saunders. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney.
,
Nature Conservation 5: Nature Conservation in Production Environments: Managing the Matrix
(pg.
345
-
359
)
Houlahan, J.E., Findlay, C.S., Schmidt, B.R., Meyers, A.H. and Kuzmin, S.L. 2000. Quantitative evidence for global amphibian declines. Nature 404: 752-755.
,
Quantitative evidence for global amphibian declines
,
Nature
, vol.
404
(pg.
752
-
755
)
James, F.C. and McCulloch, C.E. 1990. Multivariate analysis in ecology and systematics: panacea or Pandora's box? Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 21: 129-66.
,
Multivariate analysis in ecology and systematics: panacea or Pandora's box?
,
Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
, vol.
21
(pg.
129
-
66
)
Kierdorf, U. and Kierdorf, H. 2000. Comparative analysis of dental fluorosis in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus): interdental variation and species differences. Journal of the Zoological Society of London 250: 87-93.
,
Comparative analysis of dental fluorosis in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus): interdental variation and species differences
,
Journal of the Zoological Society of London
, vol.
250
(pg.
87
-
93
)
Kiesecker, J.M., Blaustein, A.R. and Belden, L.K. 2001. Complex causes of amphibian population declines. Nature 410: 681-683.
,
Complex causes of amphibian population declines
,
Nature
, vol.
410
(pg.
681
-
683
)
Knapp, R.A. and Matthews, K.R. 2000. Non-native fish introductions and the decline of the mountain yellow-legged frog from within protected areas. Conservation Biology 14: 428-438.
,
Non-native fish introductions and the decline of the mountain yellow-legged frog from within protected areas
,
Conservation Biology
, vol.
14
(pg.
428
-
438
)
Knutson, M.G., Sauer, J.R., Olsen, D.A., Mossman, M.J., Hemesath, L.M. and Lannoo, M.J. 1999. Effects of landscape composition and wetland fragmentation on frog and toad abundance and species richness in Iowa and Wisconsin, USA. Conservation Biology 13: 1437-1446.
,
Effects of landscape composition and wetland fragmentation on frog and toad abundance and species richness in Iowa and Wisconsin, USA
,
Conservation Biology
, vol.
13
(pg.
1437
-
1446
)
Lindenmayer, D.B. 1994. Some ecological considerations and computer-based approaches for the identification of potentially suitable release sites for reintroduction programmes. Pp. 1-5 in Reintroduction Biology of Australian and New Zealand Fauna, edited by M. Serena. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton.
,
Reintroduction Biology of Australian and New Zealand Fauna
(pg.
1
-
5
)
Letnic, M. and Fox, B.J. 1997. The impact of industrial fluoride fallout on faunal succession following sand mining of dry sclerophyll forest at Tomago, NSW, II. Myobatrachid frog recolonization. Biological Conservation 82: 137-46.
,
The impact of industrial fluoride fallout on faunal succession following sand mining of dry sclerophyll forest at Tomago, NSW, II. Myobatrachid frog recolonization
,
Biological Conservation
, vol.
82
(pg.
137
-
46
)
Madden, K.E. and Fox, B.J. 1997. Arthropods as indicators of the effects of fluoride pollution on the succession following sand mining. Journal of Applied Ecology 34: 1239-1256.
,
Arthropods as indicators of the effects of fluoride pollution on the succession following sand mining
,
Journal of Applied Ecology
, vol.
34
(pg.
1239
-
1256
)
Mahoney, M. 1999. Review of the declines and disappearances within the bell frog species group (Litoria aurea species group) in Australia. Pp. 81-93 in Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs, edited by A. Campbell. Environment Australia, Canberra.
,
Declines and Disappearances of Australian Frogs
(pg.
81
-
93
)
Marsh, D.M. and Pearman, P.B. 1997. Effects of habitat fragmentation on the abundance of two species of leptodactylid frogs in an Andean montane forest. Conservation Biology 11: 1323-1328.
,
Effects of habitat fragmentation on the abundance of two species of leptodactylid frogs in an Andean montane forest
,
Conservation Biology
, vol.
11
(pg.
1323
-
1328
)
Marsh, D.M., Fegraus, E.C. and Harrison, S. 1999. Effects of breeding pond isolation on the spatial and temporal dynamics of pond use by the tungara frog, Physalaemus pustulosus. Journal of Animal Ecology 68: 804.
,
Effects of breeding pond isolation on the spatial and temporal dynamics of pond use by the tungara frog, Physalaemus pustulosus
,
Journal of Animal Ecology
, vol.
68
pg.
804
Morgan, L.A. and Buttemer, W.A. 1996. Predation by the non-native Gambusia holbrooki on small Litoria aurea and L. dentata tadpoles. Australian Journal of Zoology 30: 143-149.
,
Predation by the non-native Gambusia holbrooki on small Litoria aurea and L. dentata tadpoles
,
Australian Journal of Zoology
, vol.
30
(pg.
143
-
149
)
DNRE 2002. Atlas of Victorian Wildlife. Department of Natural Resources and Environment: Victoria.
,
Atlas of Victorian Wildlife
Osborne, W.S., Littlejohn, M.J. and Thomson, S.A. 1996. Former distribution and apparent disappearance of the Litoria aurea complex from the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory. Australian Journal of Zoology 30: 190-198.
,
Former distribution and apparent disappearance of the Litoria aurea complex from the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory
,
Australian Journal of Zoology
, vol.
30
(pg.
190
-
198
)
Pounds, J.A., Fogden, M.P., Savage, J.M. and Gorman, G.C. 1997. Tests of null models for amphibian declines on a tropical mountain. Conservation Biology 11: 1307-1322.
,
Tests of null models for amphibian declines on a tropical mountain
,
Conservation Biology
, vol.
11
(pg.
1307
-
1322
)
Pyke, G.H. 2002. A review of the biology of the Southern Bell Frog Litoria raniformis (Anura: Hylidae). Australian Zoologist 32: 32-48.
,
A review of the biology of the Southern Bell Frog Litoria raniformis (Anura: Hylidae)
,
Australian Zoologist
, vol.
32
(pg.
32
-
48
)
Pyke, G.H. and White, A.W. 1996. Habitat requirements for the Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea (Anura: Hylidae). Australian Zoologist 30: 224-232.
,
Habitat requirements for the Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea (Anura: Hylidae)
,
Australian Zoologist
, vol.
30
(pg.
224
-
232
)
Pyke, G.H. and White, A.W. 2000. Factors influencing predation on eggs and tadpoles of the endangered green and golden bell frog Litoria aurea by the introduced plague minnow Gambusia holbrooki. Australian Zoologist 31: 12-31.
,
Factors influencing predation on eggs and tadpoles of the endangered green and golden bell frog Litoria aurea by the introduced plague minnow Gambusia holbrooki
,
Australian Zoologist
, vol.
31
(pg.
12
-
31
)
Pyke, G.H. and White, A.W. 2001. A review of the biology of the Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea. Australian Zoologist 31: 563-598.
,
A review of the biology of the Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea
,
Australian Zoologist
, vol.
31
(pg.
563
-
598
)
Pyke, G.H., Rowley, J., Shoulder, J. and White, A.W. 2008. Attempted Introduction of the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog to Long Reef Golf Course: A step towards recovery? Australian Zoologist, 34: 361-372.
,
Attempted Introduction of the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog to Long Reef Golf Course: A step towards recovery?
,
Australian Zoologist
, vol.
34
(pg.
361
-
372
)
Quinn, G.P. and Keough, M.J. 2002. Experimental Design and Data Analysis for Biologists. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
,
Experimental Design and Data Analysis for Biologists
Robertson, P. , Heard, G. and Scroggie, M. 2002. The ecologyand conservation status of the Growling Grass Frog (Litoria raniformis) within the Merri Creek corridor. Interim report to the Department of Natural Resources and Environment: Victoria.
,
The ecologyand conservation status of the Growling Grass Frog (Litoria raniformis) within the Merri Creek corridor
Romanowski, N. 1998. Aquatic and Wetland Plants: a Field Guide for Non-tropical Australia. UNSW Press, Sydney.
,
Aquatic and Wetland Plants: a Field Guide for Non-tropical Australia
Rounsevel, D. and Swain, R. 1993. Current issues in the conservation of the terrestrial herpetofauna of Tasmania. Pp. 71-74 in Herpetology in Australia. A Diverse Discipline, edited by D. Lunney and D. Ayers, Royal Zoological Society of NSW, Sydney.
,
Herpetology in Australia
(pg.
71
-
74
)
SAC 2000. Final recommendation on a nomination for listing: Litoria raniformis Kerferstein 1867 Warty Bell Frog (Nomination Number 486 (316)). Flora and Fauna Guarantee, Scientific Advisory Committee. Department of Natural Resources and Environment: Melbourne.
,
Final recommendation on a nomination for listing: Litoria raniformis Kerferstein 1867 Warty Bell Frog (Nomination Number 486 (316))
Sainty, G.R. and Jacobs, S.W.L. 1994. Waterplants in Australia. Third edition, Sainty and Associates, Darlinghurst.
,
Waterplants in Australia
Soderquist, T.R. 1994. The importance of hypothesis testing in reintroduction biology: examples from the reintroduction of the carnivorous marsupial Phascogale tapoatafa. Pp. 159-64 in Reintroduction Biology of Australian and New Zealand Fauna, edited by M. Serena. Surrey Beatty and Sons, Chipping Norton.
,
Reintroduction Biology of Australian and New Zealand Fauna
(pg.
159
-
64
)
Sutherland, W.J. 2000. The Conservation Handbook: Research, Management and Policy. Blackwell Science, Oxford.
,
The Conservation Handbook: Research, Management and Policy
Thomson, S.A., Littlejohn, M.J., Robinson, W.A. and Osborne, W.S. 1996. Taxonomy of the Litoria aurea complex: a re-evaluation of the Southern Tableland populations of the Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales. Australian Zoologist 30: 158-169.
,
Taxonomy of the Litoria aurea complex: a re-evaluation of the Southern Tableland populations of the Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales
,
Australian Zoologist
, vol.
30
(pg.
158
-
169
)
Trombulak, S.C. and Frissell, C.A. 2000. Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology 14: 18-30.
,
Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities
,
Conservation Biology
, vol.
14
(pg.
18
-
30
)
Tyler, T.J., Liss, W.J., Hoffman, R.L. and Ganio, L.M. 1998. Experimental analysis of trout effects on survival, growth and habitat use of two species of ambystomatid salamanders. Journal of Herpetology 32(3): 345-349.
,
Experimental analysis of trout effects on survival, growth and habitat use of two species of ambystomatid salamanders
,
Journal of Herpetology
, vol.
32
(pg.
345
-
349
)
Tyler, M.J. 1997. The Action Plan for Australian Frogs. Wildlife Australia, Canberra.
Vos, C.C and Chardon, J.P. 1998. Effects of habitat fragmentation and road density on the distribution pattern of the moor frog Rana arvalis. Journal of Applied Ecology 35: 44-56.
,
Effects of habitat fragmentation and road density on the distribution pattern of the moor frog Rana arvalis
,
Journal of Applied Ecology
, vol.
35
(pg.
44
-
56
)
Webb, C. and Joss, J. 1997. Does predation by the fish Gambusia holbrooki (Atheriniformes: Poeciliidae) contribute to declining frog populations? Australian Zoologist 30: 316-324.
,
Does predation by the fish Gambusia holbrooki (Atheriniformes: Poeciliidae) contribute to declining frog populations?
,
Australian Zoologist
, vol.
30
(pg.
316
-
324
)
This content is only available as a PDF.