The Plague Minnow Gambusia holbrooki (Girard, 1859) was first introduced into Australian waters in 1925. Early introductions were carried out in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, and later Perth, by government agencies in an attempt to reduce the incidence of mosquitoes in the capital cities. G. holbrooki flourished, but no reports were made of any apparent ecological problems arising from its introduction.
World War II and the advent of the war in the Pacific resulted in heavy Allied troop movements between mainland Australia, New Guinea and the Pacific Islands. Malaria began to take a heavy toll, so the US Army instigated a means of mosquito control through the captive-breeding and introduction of the Western Gambusia G. affinis (Baird and Girard, 1853) throughout the south-west Pacific region. The Australian Army initiated a similar campaign using the already-available G. holbrooki to establish gambusia in creeks and wetlands near military bases and hospitals in eastern Australia. The Australian Army Malaria Unit was deployed to develop gambusia breeding ponds and to disperse the fish to suitable sites. Other methods of mosquito control were also employed.
By the end of WW II G. holbrooki was widely established throughout many parts of eastern Australia,but the program of captive breeding and release remained in place for several more years as many malaria-affected personnel were now resident in Australia. In the early 1960s the first reports of adverse environmental impacts of gambusia on native fish populations appeared, and these were quickly followed by reports of impacts on other organisms, such as frogs. Gambusia was always likely to become an environmental pest species once introduced into Australia. The need to control mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases during and following WW II was paramount, however, and efforts to do this greatly accelerated the spread of gambusia. The fish established in high densities in areas where undesirable environmental consequences later became apparent, precipitating the disaster for wildlife that we see today.
Arthington, A.H. 1991. Ecological and genetic impacts of introduced and translocated freshwater fishes in Australia. Canadian Journal of Aquatic Science 48 (Suppl. 1): 33-43.
,
Ecological and genetic impacts of introduced and translocated freshwater fishes in Australia
, Canadian Journal of Aquatic Science
, vol. 48
(pg. 33
-43
) Arthington, A.H. and Lloyd, L.L. 1989. Introduced poeciliids in Australia and New Zealand. Pp. 333-348 in Ecology and Evolution of Live-bearing Fishes (Poeciliidae), edited by G.K. Meffe and F.F. Snelson, Jr. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
,
Introduced poeciliids in Australia and New Zealand
, Ecology and Evolution of Live-bearing Fishes (Poeciliidae)
(pg. 333
-348
) Arthington, A.H., McKay, R.J. and Milton, D.A. 1986. The ecology and management of exotic and endemic freshwater fishes in Queensland. Pp. 224-245 in Fisheries Management: theory and practice in Queensland, edited by T. Hundloe. Griffith University Press, Brisbane.
,
The ecology and management of exotic and endemic freshwater fishes in Queensland
, Fisheries Management: theory and practice in Queensland
(pg. 224
-245
) Barrier, R.F.G. and Hicks, B.J. 1994. Behavioural interactions between black mudfish (Neochanna diversus Stokell, 1949: Galaxiidae) and mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis Baird and Girard, 1854). Ecology of Freshwater Fish 3: 93-99.
,
Behavioural interactions between black mudfish (Neochanna diversus Stokell, 1949: Galaxiidae) and mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis Baird and Girard, 1854)
, Ecology of Freshwater Fish
, vol. 3
(pg. 93
-99
) Black, R.H. 1972. Malaria in Australia. University of Sydney Press, Sydney.
,
Malaria in Australia
Collins, F.H. and Paskewitz, S.M. 1995. Malaria: current and future prospects for control. Annual Review of Entomology 40: 195-219.
,
Malaria: current and future prospects for control
, Annual Review of Entomology
, vol. 40
(pg. 195
-219
) Cook, G. 1996. Mansen's Tropical Diseases. W.B. Saunders, London.
,
Mansen's Tropical Diseases
Courtenay, W.R. Jr. and Meffe, G.K. 1989. Small fishes in strange places: a review of introduced poeciliids. Pp. 319-331 in Ecology and Evolution of Live-bearing Fishes (Poeciliidae), edited by G.K. Meffe and F.F. Snelson, Jr. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
,
Small fishes in strange places: a review of introduced poeciliids
, Ecology and Evolution of Live-bearing Fishes (Poeciliidae)
(pg. 319
-331
) Crosby, M.C. 2005. The American Plague. Berkley Books, New York.
,
The American Plague
Curtis, C.F. 1991. Control of Disease Vectors in the Community. Wolfe, London.
,
Control of Disease Vectors in the Community
Curtis, C.F. 1994. Should DDT continue to be recommended for malaria vector control? Medical & Veterinary Entomology 8: 107-112.
,
Should DDT continue to be recommended for malaria vector control
, Medical & Veterinary Entomology
, vol. 8
(pg. 107
-112
) Ford, E. 1950. The malaria problem in Australia and the Australian Pacific Territories. Medical Journal of Australia 23: 749-760.
,
The malaria problem in Australia and the Australian Pacific Territories
, Medical Journal of Australia
, vol. 23
(pg. 749
-760
) Gambusia Control Network. 2010. Gambusia Control Homepage. http://gambusia.net
Gehrke, P.C. and Harris, J.H. 2000. Large-scale patterns in species richness and composition of temperate riverine fish communities, south-eastern Australia.Marine and Freshwater Research 51: 165-182.
,
Large-scale patterns in species richness and composition of temperate riverine fish communities, south-eastern Australia
, Marine and Freshwater Research
, vol. 51
(pg. 165
-182
) Glover, C.J.M. 1989. Fishes. Pp. 89-112 in Natural History of Dalhousie Springs, edited by W. Zeidler and W.F. Ponder. South Australian Museum, Adelaide.
,
Fishes
, Natural History of Dalhousie Springs
(pg. 89
-112
) Hamer, A.J., Lane, S.J. and Mahony, M.J. 2002. The role of the introduced mosquitofish in excluding the native Green and Golden Bell Frog from original habitats in south-eastern Australia. Oecologia 132: 445-452.
,
The role of the introduced mosquitofish in excluding the native Green and Golden Bell Frog from original habitats in south-eastern Australia
, Oecologia
, vol. 132
(pg. 445
-452
) Harris, K. 1995. Is there a negative relationship between Gambusia and tadpoles on the Northern tablelands? MSc. Thesis, University of New England, Armidale.
,
Is there a negative relationship between Gambusia and tadpoles on the Northern tablelands?
Haysom, N.M. 2000. Marshall, Thomas Claude (1896-1976). Australian Dictionary of Biography 15: 309-310. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.
,
Marshall, Thomas Claude (1896-1976)
, Australian Dictionary of Biography
, vol. 15
(pg. 309
-310
) Healey, M. 1998. The impact of native and exotic fish on the early life stages of frogs in floodplain wetlands BSc. Honours Thesis, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga.
,
The impact of native and exotic fish on the early life stages of frogs in floodplain wetlands BSc
, Honours Thesis
Howe, E., Howe, C., Lim, R. and Burchett, M. 1997. Impact of the introduced poeciliid Gambusia holbrooki (Girard, 1859) on the growth and reproduction of Pseudomugil signifer (Kner, 1865) in Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research 48: 425-434.
,
Impact of the introduced poeciliid Gambusia holbrooki (Girard, 1859) on the growth and reproduction of Pseudomugil signifer (Kner, 1865) in Australia
, Marine and Freshwater Research
, vol. 48
(pg. 425
-434
) Ivantsoff, W. and Aarn. 1999. Detection of predation on Australian native fishes by Gambusia holbrooki. Marine and Freshwater Research 50: 467-468.
,
Detection of predation on Australian native fishes by Gambusia holbrooki
, Marine and Freshwater Research
, vol. 50
(pg. 467
-468
) Hualiu, C., Wen, Y., Wuanmin, K. and Chongyi, L. 1995. Large scale spraying of bednets to control mosquito vectors and malaria in Sichuan, China. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 73: 321-328.
,
Large scale spraying of bednets to control mosquito vectors and malaria in Sichuan, China
, Bulletin of the World Health Organization
, vol. 73
(pg. 321
-328
) Keane, J.P. and Neira, F.J. 2004. First record of the mosquitofish, Gambusia holbrooki, in Tasmania, Australia. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 38: 857-858.
,
First record of the mosquitofish Gambusia holbrooki, in Tasmania, Australia
, New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research
, vol. 38
(pg. 857
-858
) Ken, R., Boriek, M. and Powers, K. 1994. How to use the state bio-control (mosquitofish) program for mosquito control in New Jersey. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection and Energy, Trenton, New Jersey.
,
How to use the state bio-control (mosquitofish) program for mosquito control in New Jersey
, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection and Energy
Kitching, R.L. (ed.) 1986. The Ecology of Exotic Animals. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
,
The Ecology of Exotic Animals
Knight, J.T. 1999. Density dependent interference competition between the Australian native fish {IPseudomugil signifer} (Kner, 1865) and the introduced Poeciliid {IGambusia holbrooki} (Girard, 1859).
Komak, S. and Crossland, M.R. 2000. An assessment of the introduced mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis holbrooki) as a predator of eggs, hatchlings and tadpoles of native and nonnative anurans. Wildlife Research 27: 185-189.
,
An assessment of the introduced mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis holbrooki) as a predator of eggs, hatchlings and tadpoles of native and nonnative anurans
, Wildlife Research
, vol. 27
(pg. 185
-189
) Koster, W.M. 1997. A study of the interactions between Dwarf Galaxias (Galaxiella pusilla), Southern Pygmy Perch (Nannoperca australis) and Eastern Gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki). Thesis, Deakin University, Rusden Campus, Clayton.
,
A study of the interactions between Dwarf Galaxias (Galaxiella pusilla)
, Southern Pygmy Perch (Nannoperca australis) and Eastern Gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki)
Krumholz, L.A. 1948. Reproduction in the western mosquitofish Gambusia affinis: its use in mosquito control. Ecological Monographs 18: 1-43.
,
Reproduction in the western mosquitofish Gambusia affinis: its use in mosquito control
, Ecological Monographs
, vol. 18
(pg. 1
-43
) Laha, M. 2006. Identifying environmental conditions to promote species coexistence: an example with the native Barrens Topminnow and invasive Western Mosquitofish. Biological Invasions 8: 125-137.
,
Identifying environmental conditions to promote species coexistence: an example with the native Barrens Topminnow and invasive Western Mosquitofish
, Biological Invasions
, vol. 8
(pg. 125
-137
) Lloyd, L. and Tomasov, J. 1985. Taxonomic status of the Mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, in Australia. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 36: 447-51.
,
Taxonomic status of the Mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, in Australia
, Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research
, vol. 36
(pg. 447
-51
) Low, T. 1999. Feral Future; the untold story of Australia's exotic invaders. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
,
Feral Future; the untold story of Australia's exotic invaders
McCullough, D. 1977. The Path Between the Seas: the Creation of the Panama Canal 1870-1914. Simon and Shuster, New York.
,
The Path Between the Seas: the Creation of the Panama Canal 1870-1914
McDowall, R. 1990. Filling in the gaps - the introduction of exotic fishes into New Zealand. Pp. 69-82 in Proceedings of the Australian Society for Fish Biology's Workshop on Introduced and Translocated Fishes and their Ecological Effects, Magnetic Island, Townsville, August 1989, edited by D.A. Pollard. Bureau of Rural Resources Proceedings No. 8, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
McGilp, E. 1994. Distribution of anuran amphibians in the lower Yarra River valley. B. Sc. Honours Thesis. University of Melbourne.
McKay, R.J. 1984. Introductions of exotic fishes in Australia. Pp. 177-199 in Distribution, Biology and Management of Exotic Fishes, edited by W.R. Courtenay Jr. and J.R. Stauffer Jr. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
,
Introductions of exotic fishes in Australia
, Distribution, Biology and Management of Exotic Fishes
(pg. 177
-199
) McKew, M. 1999. Scientists declare war on mosquitofish. ABC News 14 April 1999, ABC News Online 9 May 2008. http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/stories/s21851.htm
Mees, G.F. 1977. The status of Gambusia in south-western Australia. Records of the Western Australian Museum 6: 27-31.
,
The status of Gambusia in south-western Australia
, Records of the Western Australian Museum
, vol. 6
(pg. 27
-31
) Meisch, M.V. 1985. Gambusia affinis affinis. Pp 3-17 in Biological Control of Mosquitoes, edited by H.C. Chapman. American Mosquito Control Association, Fresno, CA.
,
Gambusia affinis affinis
, Biological Control of Mosquitoes
(pg. 3
-17
) Milton, D.A. and Arthington, A.H. 1982. Reproductive biology of Gambusia affinis holbrooki Baird and Girard, Xiphophorus helleri (Günther) and X. maculatus (Heckel) (Pisces; Poeciliidae) in Queensland, Australia. Journal of Fish Biology 23: 23-41.
,
Reproductive biology of Gambusia affinis holbrooki Baird and Girard, Xiphophorus helleri (Günther) and X. maculatus (Heckel) (Pisces; Poeciliidae) in Queensland, Australia
, Journal of Fish Biology
, vol. 23
(pg. 23
-41
) Moore, V.A. 1973. Gambusia affinis (mosquito destroying fish). Hunter Natural History 5(1): 14-18.
,
Gambusia affinis (mosquito destroying fish)
, Hunter Natural History
, vol. 5
(pg. 14
-18
) Morgan, L.A. and Buttemer, W.A. 1997. Predation by the non-native fish Gambusia holbrooki on small Litoria aurea and L. dentata tadpoles. Australian Zoologist 30: 143-149
,
Predation by the non-native fish Gambusia holbrooki on small Litoria aurea and L. dentata tadpoles
, Australian Zoologist
, vol. 30
(pg. 143
-149
) NPWS. 2003. Approved Threat Abatement Plan. Predation by Gambusia holbrooki-the plague minnow. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Hurstville.
Pollard, D.A., Llewellyn, L.C. and Tilzey, R.D.J. 1980. Management of freshwater fish and fisheries. Pp. 227-270 in An Ecological Basis for Water Resource Management, edited by W.D. Williams. Australian National University Press, Canberra.
,
Management of freshwater fish and fisheries
, An Ecological Basis for Water Resource Management
(pg. 227
-270
) Pressey, R.L. and Harris, J.H. 1988. Wetlands of New South Wales. Pp. 35-57 in Conservation of Australian Wetlands, edited by A.J. McComb and P.S. Lake. Surrey Beatty Pty Ltd, Sydney.
,
Wetlands of New South Wales
, Conservation of Australian Wetlands
(pg. 35
-57
) Pyke, G.H. 2005. A review of the biology of Gambusia affinis and G. holbrooki. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 15: 339-365.
,
A review of the biology of Gambusia affinis and G. holbrooki
, Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries
, vol. 15
(pg. 339
-365
) Pyke, G.H. 2008. Plague minnow or mosquito fish? A review of the biology and impacts of introduced Gambusia species. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 39: 171-191.
,
Plague minnow or mosquito fish? A review of the biology and impacts of introduced Gambusia species
, Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics
, vol. 39
(pg. 171
-191
) Pyke, G.H. and White, A.W. 2000. Factors influencing predation on eggs and tadpoles of the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea by the introduced Plague Minnow Gambusia holbrooki. Australian Zoologist 31: 496-505.
,
Factors influencing predation on eggs and tadpoles of the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea by the introduced Plague Minnow Gambusia holbrooki
, Australian Zoologist
, vol. 31
(pg. 496
-505
) Reynolds, S.J. 2009. Impact of the introduced poeciliid Gambusia holbrooki on amphibians in southwestern Australia. Copeia 2009: 296-302.
,
Impact of the introduced poeciliid Gambusia holbrooki on amphibians in southwestern Australia
, Copeia
, vol. 2009
(pg. 296
-302
) Rockerfeller Foundation. 1921. Fighting mosquitoes with mosquitofish. International Health Board, 8th Annual report. Rockerfeller Foundation, New York.
Rowe, D., Moore, A., Giorgetti, A., Maclean, C., Grace, P., Wadhwa, S. and Cooke, J. 2008. Review of the impacts of gambusia, redfin perch, tench, roach, yellowfin goby and streaked goby in Australia. Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra.
,
Review of the impacts of gambusia, redfin perch, tench, roach, yellowfin goby and streaked goby in Australia
Scholdt, L.L., Erhardt, D.A. and Michael, A.G. 1972. Guide to the use of the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, for mosquito control. Navy Environmental and Preventative Medicine Unit No. 2. Norfolk, Virginia.
,
Guide to the use of the mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis, for mosquito control
, Navy Environmental and Preventative Medicine Unit No. 2
Seale, A. 1917. The mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard) in the Philippine Islands. Philippine Journal of Science 5: 153-159.
,
The mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard) in the Philippine Islands
, Philippine Journal of Science
, vol. 5
(pg. 153
-159
) Sharma, V.P. 2003. DDT: The fallen angel. Current Science 85: 1532–1537.
,
DDT: The fallen angel
, Current Science
, vol. 85
(pg. 1532
-1537
) Smith, J.B. 1908. Report of the mosquito work in 1907. New Jersey Agric. Exp. Station, Entomology, Report for 1907. Pp. 541-543.
Spencer, M. 1992. History of malaria control in the southwest Pacific region, with particular reference to Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. Papua New Guinea Medical Journal 35: 33–66.
,
History of malaria control in the southwest Pacific region, with particular reference to Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands
, Papua New Guinea Medical Journal
, vol. 35
(pg. 33
-66
) Stanley, P. 2008. Invading Australia: Japan and the battle for Australia 1942. Penguin Books, Melbourne.
,
Invading Australia: Japan and the battle for Australia 1942
Stearns, S.C. 1983. A natural experiment in life history evolution: field data on the introduction of mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) to Hawaii. Evolution 37: 601-617.
,
A natural experiment in life history evolution: field data on the introduction of mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) to Hawaii
, Evolution
, vol. 37
(pg. 601
-617
) Thomson, J.M. 1978. Vertebrates of the Brisbane River valley. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland 89: 121-128.
,
Vertebrates of the Brisbane River valley
, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland
, vol. 89
(pg. 121
-128
) Tomasov, J.F. 1981. Studies on an introduced species. The mosquitofish - Gambusia affinis MSc. Thesis, Department of Genetics and Human Variation, La Trobe University, Melbourne.
Unmack, P. 1992. Further observations on the conservation status of the redfinned blue-eye. The Bulletin 12: 8-9. (Bulletin of the Australian New Guinea Fishes Association, Australia).
,
Further observations on the conservation status of the redfinned blue-eye
, The Bulletin
, vol. 12
(pg. 8
-9
) Unmack, P. and Brumley, C. 1991. Initial observations on the spawning and conservation status of the redfinned blueeye (Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis). Fishes of Sahul 6: 282-284. (Journal of the Australian New Guinea Fishes Association, Australia).
,
Initial observations on the spawning and conservation status of the redfinned blueeye (Scaturiginichthys vermeilipinnis)
, Fishes of Sahul
, vol. 6
(pg. 282
-284
) Wager, R. 1994. The distribution and status of the redfinned blue eye. Final Report Part B: The distribution of two endangered fish in Queensland. Endangered species unit project number 276. Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Deception Bay, Queensland.
Wager, R. 1995. Elizabeth Springs goby and Edgbaston goby: distribution and status. Endangered Species Unit Project Number 417. (Final Report). Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Deception Bay, Queensland.
Weatherall, D.J., Ledingham, J.G.G. and Warrell, D.A. 1987. The Oxford Textbook of Medicine, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, London.
,
The Oxford Textbook of Medicine
Webb, C. and Joss, J. 1997. Does predation by the fish Gambusia holbrooki (Atheriniformes: Poeciliidae) contribute to declining frog populations? Australian Zoologist 30: 316-324.
,
Does predation by the fish Gambusia holbrooki (Atheriniformes: Poeciliidae) contribute to declining frog populations
, Australian Zoologist
, vol. 30
(pg. 316
-324
)
This content is only available as a PDF.
