Fauna Impact Statements (FISs) are now required in association with all actions in New South Wales which are, considered likely to “take or kill” “endangered” fauna. In this paper it is argued that “take or kill” is equivalent to having a significant impact on either individuals or the habitat of a species of endangered fauna. In addition, I review the context in which these FISs are required and consider the adequacy of FISs that have so far been produced as well as potential improvements in the FIS process.

The Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea has undergone a dramatic population decline in New South Wales. During this time the species' status in this state has changed from being common in the 1960s to endangered in 1992. To assess the present population numbers and environmental pressures, 31 sites within the Greater Sydney region and 61 sites from regional areas of New South Wales were surveyed. The sites consisted of previously known but no longer used localities prior to 1990, as well as more recently discovered localities. Since 1990, only 38 localities have been recorded for Green and Golden Bell Frogs, 19 of these are in the Greater Sydney region. Since the 1960s Green and Golden Bell Frogs have disappeared completely from all highland areas above 250 m a.s.l. Coastal populations have been reduced in number and are more isolated from other extant populations. Many of the extant sites are new sites (post 1990) for this species and occur in highly disturbed environments. The ecological niche of this species is discussed in the light of new observations on these frogs. The introduction of Mosquito Fish Gambusia holbrooki may be one of the factors limiting the recovery of Green and Golden Bell Frog populations in New South Wales.

With the advent of computer-based technology and the increasing need to focus on the biology of plant and animal species, it i s both necessary and timely to adopt strategies for reviewing available information concerning individual species. To be most useful, biological reviews should be able to cope with taxonomic uncertainty and change, should be comprehensive with regard to topics, sufficiently detailed, repeatable and easy to keep up-to-date, should include anecdotal observations, and should indicate the nature and extent of support for each statement concerning a species. I present here a computer-based strategy which I have adopted for carrying out such reviews and illustrate it with the example of the diet of the Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea

The Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea has declined dramatically in New South Wales. One hypothesis suggests that this decline is largely due to predation by the Plague Minnow Gambusia holbrooki , which was introduced into Australia as part of efforts to control mosquitoes. Other frog species, such as Striped Marsh Frog Limnodynasres peronii and Peron's Tree Frog Litoria peranii have not apparently suffered from this predation to the same degree. Laboratory experiments were undertaken in order to evaluate the extent t o which predation on eggs, fry and tadpoles of L aurea by Gambusia is influenced by the presence of rocks (as potential shelter), the presence of other frog species (as alternative food) and a number of variables that reflect the ratio of the number of prey available to the amount of food that would be required to satiate the fish. These experiments showed that the proportion of available L aurea eggs or tadpoles eaten increased with both decreases in the number of prey available and increases in the satiation requirements of the fish. Less expected, however, were the results that the extent of predation on L aurea did not depend on whether rocks were present, nor on whether other frog species were present. Similarly, predation on both the Lim . peronii and the L peronii was not influenced by whether these species were presented to the fish on their own or in the presence of one or other of the other two frog species. Gambusia was observed to employ different predatory strategies when attacking tadpoles of different sizes. Tadpoles were most often attacked from the rear, usually by a school of fish. Larger tadpoles were rarely eaten after being killed. Smaller tadpoles and fry were eaten mid-ventral region first, often only the viscera and yolk sac being consumed. L aurea eggs were torn open and sometimes the yolk was consumed. Preliminary experiments on the extent of predation on L aurea eggs, fry and tadpoles by Empire Gudgeon Hypseleotris compressa , Firetailed Gudgeon H. galii , Pacific Blue-eye Pseudomugil signifer and Red-fin Perch Perca fluviatilis were also carried out. These experiments suggest that these fish will, if sufficiently hungry, eat the eggs, fry and tadpoles of L aurea but that the extent of such predation may be generally less than with Gambusia under similar circumstances. Further research in this area is necessary before management implications are drawn. The experimental studies of predation by Gambusia demonstrate that, under some circumstances, it is a voracious predator of eggs, fry and tadpoles of L aurea . This is consistent with the increase in abundance and distribution of Gambusia being a major factor in bringing about the decline of L aurea and indicates that steps should be taken to limit further spread of this fish into areas where L aurea is found. However, the few observations of L aurea apparently surviving and breeding in water bodies occupied with Gambusia suggest that it may be possible to develop management strategies that reduce any impact of Gambusia on this frog species in places where the fish is already present.

The Southern Bell Frog Litoria raniformis , like the closely-related Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea , is considered to be threatened with extinction and subject to the future development of strategies aimed at its recovery. A necessary component of this recovery process will be a detailed and comprehensive review of available biological information concerning this species.This paper aims to provide such a review. Litoria raniformis is, at least in comparison with L. aurea , poorly studied and many aspects of its biology warrant further investigation. Research conducted to date, however, reveals few, if any, differences in biology between the two species. They are similar in size, appearance, call, breeding biology, habitat and general behaviour. Recovery strategies for the two species are therefore likely to be similar. Both are apparently threatened by habitat loss and modification, and by predation by the introduced Plague Minnow or Gambusia Gambusia holbrooki , and so may benefit from increased legal protection and control of Gambusia impact. Both are able to live in sites that are largely or completely human-made, and so may benefit from programs to either enhance or develop suitable habitat. Disturbance, either natural or human-induced, is apparently important to both frog species.

Patterns of habitat-use are used widely as management guides in the conservation of wildlife. However, even for relatively well-studied species, such the Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea, our knowledge of specific habitat requirements is lacking. This study sought to compare the patterns of breeding habitat shown by L. aurea in New South Wales (NSW), Victoria and New Zealand (where it is a feral species), with those described in an earlier study of Pyke and White (1996), to review the conservation status of this species in Victoria,and to relate its observed patterns of distribution and habitat-use to the distribution of the introduced Plague Minnow ( Gambusia holbrooki in Australia; G. affinis in New Zealand). We found that L. aurea used similar breeding habitats in NSW,Victoria and New Zealand.Across these areas its breeding is almost completely restricted to water bodies that are still, relatively unshaded, and low in salinity (i.e., <7.3 ppt). All of its known breeding sites are highly disturbed,mostly through human activities but also through flooding and other natural processes. It generally breeds in small (i.e., <1000 sq m), shallow (i.e., <1 m) ponds that are either ephemeral or fluctuate significantly in water level, are free of Gambusia and other predatory fish, and have emergent aquatic vegetation. Its breeding habitat also usually has potential shelter provided by nearby rocks or thick, low vegetation. Yet L. aurea is adaptable to different habitats and we found it breeding in a wide range of conditions including ponds lacking emergent vegetation and those already colonised by Gambusia . Breeding ponds ranged in terms of substrate, nearby terrestrial vegetation, water source, and water properties including turbidity, dissolved oxygen, oxidation reduction potential, pH and temperature. Gambusia may have had a negative impact on the distribution of L. aurea in New Zealand and could threaten populations in Victoria.We failed to find L.aurea at sites in New Zealand where it had previously been reported but that are now colonised by Gambusia . This fish has not invaded L. aurea habitat in Victoria, but it can potentially do so from nearby regions. Further surveys for L. aurea in Victoria and New Zealand seem warranted. Paradoxically New Zealand may offer unique opportunities for further research on the biology of Australian frogs. The commonly encountered frogs in New Zealand are three Australian species, two of which (i.e., L. aurea and L. raniformis ) are considered threatened with extinction in Australia. It may be possible in New Zealand to study relatively large populations of these Australian frog species, in relatively simple frog communities and habitats. Because these species are not protected in New Zealand, field studies can also incorporate experimental manipulations not readily possible in Australia.

We examined the habitat features of sites where the Green and Golden Bell Frog is known to have been present, differentiating between those sites where breeding is known to have occurred and those where breeding has not been recorded. We found that, for a site to support a breeding population of the species, it should contain water bodies which are still, shallow, ephemeral, unpolluted, unshaded and free of Gambusia and other predatory fish. It should have a grassy area nearby and other nearby vegetation should be no higher than woodland. The substrate of the ponds should be sand or rock, aquatic plants should be present and there should be a range of possible diurnal shelter sites, including vegetation and rocks.

Populations of five frog species were monitored at three ponds utilized by the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea over a three year period 1993-1996. Litoria aurea bred at the two semi-permanent ponds with fluctuating water levels but did not breed at the permanent pond with a relatively constant water level, though it was abundant there. Other frog species generally bred at all ponds where they were found. At the semi-permanent ponds the numbers of the various frog species fluctuated, but there were no apparent long-term trends. On the other hand, at the permanent pond there were changes through time in both plant and frog species. As the pond aged, the relative abundance of various species of emergent aquatic plants changed, the area of open water steadily decreased, and the depth decreased. Over the same period, the relative abundance of several frog species changed with the most abundant species being first L. aurea and then Limnodynasies pemnii , and finally Crinia signifera increased to become co-dominant with Lim. peronii . The temporal changes in the numbers of each species were attributed to the changes in the condition of the ponds.

For more than 20 years there has been conflict arising from different points of view concerning the role of the introduced honeybee. There is a strong prima facie argument, and some supporting evidence, that introduced honeybees are likely to adversely affect the environment. Some land management agencies have consequently adopted a policy of removal of hive honeybees from areas devoted primarily to conservation. On the other hand, some argue that the scientific evidence on the issue remains poor, point out the economic benefits that arise from the honeybee industry and suggest that removal of apiaries from such areas is unjustified. It is suggested in this paper that adoption of the Precautionary Principle could Significantly reduce this conflict. Instead of the focus being on obtaining definitive “proof” concerning possible impacts of honeybees, it could shift to finding ways to reduce the density of feral honeybees, and hence their impacts on both the natural environment and honeybees in hives. The focus could also shift to finding sites where reduction in honeybee density is feasible and the likely conservation gains arising from such a reduction are relatively high. In this way both the honeybee industry and the natural environment could benefit.

The Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea is an unusual endangered frog species. It has a high public profile as many populations occur in areas affected by human activities. As a result, there has been considerable recent scientific and popular interest in the species. Despite the interest and large volume of documented information there has been no general review of the biology of the species. Litoria aurea is not typical of other endangered species. It has many attributes of a “weedy” or “colonizing” species. Like other such species, it is characterised by occurrence in disturbed or newly created sites, high fecundity and high dispersal ability. However, unlike many “colonizing” species that are very common, L. aurea is considered to be endangered. Though the decline of L. aurea is continuing as a result of ongoing threats, it should be possible to promote some recovery of the species through such strategies as increased legislative protection, conservation agreements, habitat manipulation, and control of the impacts of the introduced Plague Minnow Gambusia holbrooki . As in many similar situations, further research will be essential to provide the necessary information-base for the threats to be arrested and the opportunities to be pursued. In this paper we review all available published information with regard to the biology of L. aurea , and include some previously unpublished field observations. We consider the implications of this review in terms of recovery and/or management of the species and the extent of further research on L. aurea that could benefit the recovery process.

: Experiments with tadpoles have been used to distinguish between intra- and inter-specific interactions and between interactions that arise through direct physical contact or indirectly through water-born movement of chemicals or micro-organisms. In the case of two Australian frog species, the Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea and the Striped Marsh Frog Limnodynastes peronii , it has been suspected that there are negative chemical interactions between the tadpoles of these two species, and that management of the former species, which is considered ‘threatened’ with extinction, may have to consider such interactions. We therefore sought to evaluate the nature of any interactions between tadpoles of these two species using three experimental treatments in which each tadpole species occurred on its own (i.e., “separate”), in the same water as the other species but separated by a mesh partition (i.e., “adjacent”), and intermingling together in the same water (i.e., “mixed”). We minimized any effects of coprophagy through the use of a mesh that was below the tadpoles and through which the faeces settled and became unavailable. We found that: (a) L. aurea tadpoles grew faster but developed more slowly than Lim. peronii tadpoles; (b) for both frog species, tadpoles grew more slowly in the “adjacent” treatment than in the “mixed” or “separate” treatments, but there was no significant difference between these latter two treatments; and (c) treatment had no apparent effect on tadpole survival or development for either species. These results indicate that there were no differences between the effects of intra- and inter-specific interactions on either growth or development when tadpoles were allowed to intermingle. It is difficult to explain why our “adjacent” treatment was significantly outside the range exhibited by the other two treatments in terms of tadpole growth and there was no clear evidence of any indirect chemically-based interactions between tadpoles of the two species. As this study has provided no indication that there may be inter-specific interactions between tadpoles of L. aurea and Lim. peronii that are any different from intra-specific interactions, it does not support suggestions that L. aurea breeding habitat might be enhanced through modifications that make it less suitable for tadpoles of Lim. peronii .

The Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea is threatened with extinction, but generally occurs in disturbed sites and has successfully colonized some sites that are essentially artificial. It should therefore be possible to promote recovery of the species by increasing the availability of suitable habitat through habitat modification or creation and, where necessary, translocating individuals into these habitat areas. Apparently suitable habitat for this species had been created at Long Reef Golf Course in the northern Sydney suburb of Collaroy. We translocated approximately 9,000 captive-bred tadpoles from Taronga Zoo into these habitat areas over 7 years. This program has not led to the establishment of a self-sustaining population of the Green and Golden Bell Frog at Long Reef Golf Course and must therefore be considered unsuccessful. It has had partial success as some released tadpoles metamorphosed into frogs, some of these developed into adults, and a few males were recorded calling. However, breeding by these introduced animals has not been recorded, and, in the absence of continuing tadpole releases, the number of bell frogs has declined to zero. It has, however, provided a number of guidelines for future similar programs. Success with this program has been limited by fish, time of tadpole release and water temperature, and hence we recommend that future translocations of Green and Golden Bell Frog tadpoles should be carried out during spring or summer and should target ponds that are warm and fish-free. Program success was also limited by the numbers of tadpoles available for release. The lack of tadpoles for spring/summer release since the 2003/2004 breeding season has prevented evaluation of new, relatively warm ponds. Any captive-breeding program for this frog species must therefore be successful, in its own right, if it is to provide tadpoles for release. Disease is unlikely to have influenced the outcomes of this program, but should always be considered a potentially-important factor.

Surveys carried out between 1990 and 1995 of almost all known historic locations within New South Wales (including the ACT) for the Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea revealed that the species had suffered a dramatic decline in distribution and abundance in this region, with over 80% of all historic populations having gone extinct, and many of the extant populations being reduced to low numbers. The present study involved surveys of the Green and Golden Bell Frog locations that were known in 1995, surveys of new locations or potential areas for new locations of this species, and review of management plans and other documented information concerning particular populations. Over the last 12 years extinctions have continued with the loss of almost 50% of those sub-populations and 23% of populations known in 1995. Obviously the species cannot sustain this rate of loss for much longer and continue to exist within New South Wales. Protection for remaining extant populations is very limited and most are under continuing threat. Management plans have been prepared in relation to a number of sub-populations/ populations, but these plans have not focused on populations under current threat, and associated management actions designed to benefit this frog have occurred in only a few cases. Hence, decline of this species within NSW is likely to continue. Habitat change, mostly through destruction and disturbance, has been the major factor in population loss with the likelihood of extinction increasing with increases in the extent of habitat loss as measured by the number of habitat variables that have declined. Invasion by exotic predatory fish Gambusia holbrooki , previously linked with declines in this frog species, shows no apparent association with extinction of populations over the last 12 years and poses no apparent current threat to any population, apparently because any impact of this species has been ameliorated through the presence of submerged/ floating aquatic vegetation which may provide some protection against predation for eggs and tadpoles. The steps most likely to improve the conservation status of the Green and Golden Bell Frog within the state are habitat enhancement/ development and restoration of movement links between nearby populations.

Translocations involving the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog Litoria aurea have been under way in the Greater Sydney area since 1993. Case studies for four of these translocations are presented; the translocation sites being at Botany, Marrickville, Long Reef and Arncliffe. Bell frogs have persisted at only one of these sites since their introduction (Arncliffe). The success or failure of each translocation has provided insights into the habitat requirements and management of bell frogs. In unsuccessful translocations, the reasons for the inability to establish a permanent population became more apparent with monitoring; at Botany, young bell frogs failed to survive the winter because of inadequate or inappropriate over-winter habitat being available; at Long Reef, foraging and breeding habitat were inadequate; at Marrickville, urban predators and disease eliminated frogs. Other factors also appear to have a significant effect on the likely outcome of the translocation. These include: the proximity of a source population, the presence or absence of predatory fish, pond water temperature and the timing of the release of tadpoles at translocation sites. Despite the difficulties and uncertainties associated with habitat creation and the establishment of translocated frogs, translocations remain as a last resort strategy for the conservation of frog populations that may otherwise be lost.

The Southern Bell Frog Litoria raniformis has declined dramatically in distribution and abundance in New South Wales, where it is presently considered ‘endangered’. However, cultivation of rice through irrigation has created suitable habitat for this species, thus enabling it to colonise some, but not all, rice-growing areas. One such area, the Coleambally Irrigation Area, presently contains a large proportion of the remaining known locations of the species in New South Wales. Within this area this frog is widespread and locally abundant, and it uses flooded rice fields for breeding, though there are other kinds of water bodies that may also be used for breeding. The seasonal flooding regime for the rice mirrors the breeding requirements for this frog species. However, through reduction in flooding of natural habitat areas, diversion of water to rice and other irrigation-based agriculture has probably also contributed to the decline of this frog species and reversal of this through ‘environmental flows’ along rivers could be to its benefit. Its conservation in New South Wales is therefore likely to depend on the nature and extent of rice-growing in this state.