. The once abundant Burmese star tortoise ( Geochelone platynota ) was functionally extirpated from Myanmar largely due to exploitation for wildlife trade markets. Geochelone platynota is endemic to the dry zone of central Myanmar, a desert-like region formed by the rain shadow of the western mountains. To prevent biological extinction, ex situ captive assurance colonies were established and a captive breeding program was initiated. Three major assurance colonies of Burmese star tortoises in Myanmar produced approximately > 14,000 individuals between 2004 and 2018. In 2013 and 2014, the Wildlife Conservation Society, Turtle Survival Alliance, and Myanmar Forestry Department performed health assessments on 539 tortoises prior to reintroduction. Tortoises were negative by polymerase chain reaction for the presence of Mycoplasma spp., ranavirus, herpesvirus, and the intranuclear coccidian parasite of Testudines. Results from hematologic assessment of all study tortoises were consistent with published data on other species of healthy tortoises. Such health assessments, including physical examination, hematologic analysis and molecular pathogen screening, are important to generate baseline information about potential circulating organisms or pathogens. Additionally, health assessments ensure the success of repatriation projects by both assuring that potential pathogens associated with disease are not inadvertently introduced into the wild, and that individuals slated for release are healthy enough to weather the rigors of reintroduction.

We present a review and analysis of the conservation status and International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) threat categories of all 360 currently recognized species of extant and recently extinct turtles and tortoises (Order Testudines). Our analysis is based on the 2018 IUCN Red List status of 251 listed species, augmented by provisional Red List assessments by the IUCN Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group (TFTSG) of 109 currently unlisted species of tortoises and freshwater turtles, as well as re-assessments of several outdated IUCN Red List assessments. Of all recognized species of turtles and tortoises, this combined analysis indicates that 20.0% are Critically Endangered (CR), 35.3% are Critically Endangered or Endangered (CR+EN), and 51.9% are Threatened (CR+EN+Vulnerable). Adjusting for the potential threat levels of Data Deficient (DD) species indicates that 56.3% of all data-sufficient species are Threatened. We calculated percentages of imperiled species and modified Average Threat Levels (ATL; ranging from Least Concern = 1 to Extinct = 8) for various taxonomic and geographic groupings. Proportionally more species in the subfamily Geoemydinae (Asian members of the family Geoemydidae) are imperiled (74.2% CR+EN, 79.0% Threatened, 3.89 ATL) compared to other taxonomic groupings, but the families Podocnemididae, Testudinidae, and Trionychidae and the superfamily Chelonioidea (marine turtles of the families Cheloniidae and Dermochelyidae) also have high percentages of imperiled species and ATLs (42.9–50.0% CR+EN, 73.8–100.0% Threatened, 3.44–4.06 ATL). The subfamily Rhinoclemmydinae (Neotropical turtles of the family Geoemydidae) and the families Kinosternidae and Pelomedusidae have the lowest percentages of imperiled species and ATLs (0%–7.4% CR+EN, 7.4%–13.3% Threatened, 1.65–1.87 ATL). Turtles from Asia have the highest percentages of imperiled species (75.0% CR+EN, 83.0% Threatened, 3.98 ATL), significantly higher than predicted based on the regional species richness, due to much higher levels of exploitation in that geographic region. The family Testudinidae has the highest ATL (4.06) of all Testudines due to the extinction of several species of giant tortoises from Indian and Pacific Ocean islands since 1500 CE. The family Testudinidae also has an ATL higher than all other larger polytypic families (≥ 5 species) of Reptilia or Amphibia. The order Testudines is, on average, more imperiled than all other larger orders (≥ 20 species) of Reptilia, Amphibia, Mammalia, or Aves, but has percentages of CR+EN and Threatened species and an ATL (2.96) similar to those of Primates and Caudata (salamanders).

Characterizing variation in reproductive output is foundational to understanding the demography of a population and determining management strategies. Doing so is paramount when the species of interest is threatened with extinction. The red-crowned roofed turtle ( Batagur kachuga ) and the three-striped roofed turtle ( Batagur dhongoka ) are severely threatened by overharvesting and habitat loss. Despite their imperiled status, there are very few published studies on species ecology and life history to enable effective conservation; the 3 published studies that are available were completed nearly 3 decades ago. We herein provide information on variation in reproductive output for these turtles in the Chambal River of North India. Generalized linear models and analyses of variance were fitted to data on nesting density, fecundity, and egg volume. The number of nests showed an overall decline across 3 seasons (2007, 2008, and 2010) over a 4-yr duration with the highest number of nests observed in the middle of each nesting season. Peak nesting activity potentially occurs at lowest river depth or maximum availability of nesting habitat. The observed decline in the number of nests could be related to a decline in the nesting cohort or a geographic shift in suitable nesting habitat or changes in food resource availability and/or acquisition, leading to fewer females nesting. The number of nests in B. kachuga were significantly negatively correlated with total precipitation in the immediately preceding year. Presumably, total precipitation may affect the amount of nesting habitat available or availability of some other limiting resource. Reproductive output in both species varied as a function of fecundity rather than egg volume, implying that maturity occurs at larger body sizes for egg volume to be unconstrained, which would require relatively long generation times. Variation in clutch size could be tied to variable resource acquisition patterns, although total precipitation was not found to be an appropriate proxy. Potential variation in fecundity as a function of body size was not accounted for in the study. The study corroborated previous findings that B. kachuga lays larger and fewer eggs than B. dhongoka . These results contribute to understanding the life history of these poorly documented turtle species and toward informing conservation actions. Future studies over a larger spatial extent need to characterize nesting sites and nest-site fidelity and incorporate data from individual females.