. The once abundant Burmese star tortoise ( Geochelone platynota ) was functionally extirpated from Myanmar largely due to exploitation for wildlife trade markets. Geochelone platynota is endemic to the dry zone of central Myanmar, a desert-like region formed by the rain shadow of the western mountains. To prevent biological extinction, ex situ captive assurance colonies were established and a captive breeding program was initiated. Three major assurance colonies of Burmese star tortoises in Myanmar produced approximately > 14,000 individuals between 2004 and 2018. In 2013 and 2014, the Wildlife Conservation Society, Turtle Survival Alliance, and Myanmar Forestry Department performed health assessments on 539 tortoises prior to reintroduction. Tortoises were negative by polymerase chain reaction for the presence of Mycoplasma spp., ranavirus, herpesvirus, and the intranuclear coccidian parasite of Testudines. Results from hematologic assessment of all study tortoises were consistent with published data on other species of healthy tortoises. Such health assessments, including physical examination, hematologic analysis and molecular pathogen screening, are important to generate baseline information about potential circulating organisms or pathogens. Additionally, health assessments ensure the success of repatriation projects by both assuring that potential pathogens associated with disease are not inadvertently introduced into the wild, and that individuals slated for release are healthy enough to weather the rigors of reintroduction.

We present a review and analysis of the conservation status and International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) threat categories of all 360 currently recognized species of extant and recently extinct turtles and tortoises (Order Testudines). Our analysis is based on the 2018 IUCN Red List status of 251 listed species, augmented by provisional Red List assessments by the IUCN Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group (TFTSG) of 109 currently unlisted species of tortoises and freshwater turtles, as well as re-assessments of several outdated IUCN Red List assessments. Of all recognized species of turtles and tortoises, this combined analysis indicates that 20.0% are Critically Endangered (CR), 35.3% are Critically Endangered or Endangered (CR+EN), and 51.9% are Threatened (CR+EN+Vulnerable). Adjusting for the potential threat levels of Data Deficient (DD) species indicates that 56.3% of all data-sufficient species are Threatened. We calculated percentages of imperiled species and modified Average Threat Levels (ATL; ranging from Least Concern = 1 to Extinct = 8) for various taxonomic and geographic groupings. Proportionally more species in the subfamily Geoemydinae (Asian members of the family Geoemydidae) are imperiled (74.2% CR+EN, 79.0% Threatened, 3.89 ATL) compared to other taxonomic groupings, but the families Podocnemididae, Testudinidae, and Trionychidae and the superfamily Chelonioidea (marine turtles of the families Cheloniidae and Dermochelyidae) also have high percentages of imperiled species and ATLs (42.9–50.0% CR+EN, 73.8–100.0% Threatened, 3.44–4.06 ATL). The subfamily Rhinoclemmydinae (Neotropical turtles of the family Geoemydidae) and the families Kinosternidae and Pelomedusidae have the lowest percentages of imperiled species and ATLs (0%–7.4% CR+EN, 7.4%–13.3% Threatened, 1.65–1.87 ATL). Turtles from Asia have the highest percentages of imperiled species (75.0% CR+EN, 83.0% Threatened, 3.98 ATL), significantly higher than predicted based on the regional species richness, due to much higher levels of exploitation in that geographic region. The family Testudinidae has the highest ATL (4.06) of all Testudines due to the extinction of several species of giant tortoises from Indian and Pacific Ocean islands since 1500 CE. The family Testudinidae also has an ATL higher than all other larger polytypic families (≥ 5 species) of Reptilia or Amphibia. The order Testudines is, on average, more imperiled than all other larger orders (≥ 20 species) of Reptilia, Amphibia, Mammalia, or Aves, but has percentages of CR+EN and Threatened species and an ATL (2.96) similar to those of Primates and Caudata (salamanders).

The Arakan forest turtle ( Heosemys depressa ) is a critically endangered, poorly known chelonian endemic to western Myanmar. Previously known only from the Rakhine ( = Arakan) Hills, we here report a significant northward range extension into the southern Chin Hills, verify the occurrence of H. depressa in Kyauk Pan Taung Wildlife Sanctuary, and present new information on elevational limits, natural history, and folk taxonomy of this enigmatic species.

We report the first specimen-based records of Heosemys spinosa (Gray 1830) from Myanmar, validating earlier assumptions of its occurrence within the country. Our records consist of 5 living H. spinosa examined at Kan Baw Gyi Village in Tanintharyi Region of southern Myanmar. These specimens originated from seasonally inundated lowland riparian wetlands near the village where we examined them. Potential threats to H. spinosa in southern Myanmar include subsistence and commercial harvesting and, most importantly, the widespread conversion of natural forests to oil palm plantations.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Red List considers Batagur baska regionally extinct in Myanmar owing to the paucity of recent records. We conducted field surveys in coastal regions of Myanmar during 2004 and verified the occurrence of small populations of B. baska at scattered localities in Mon State, and Tanintharyi and Ayeyarwady Divisions. We attribute the continued persistence of these populations to a combination of local religious beliefs that discourage the capture of turtles and areas of armed conflict between government forces and Mon insurgents where fishermen can venture only at great personal risk.