Ambivalence toward Formalizing Customary Resource Management Norms among Alaska Native Beluga Whale Hunters and Tohono O'odham Livestock Owners

Indigenous communities are increasingly asked to develop formal resource management plans, which often require them to codify implicit, norm-based management systems. We compare the experiences of two indigenous groups that attempted to develop such management plans for beluga whales and arid rangelands, respectively. In both cases, progress was slow or plans did not meet design criteria such as clearly defined spatial and social boundaries. We found that the social and cultural costs of formal planning may outweigh the benefits for some indigenous communities. Community members favored education as a solution to current management challenges, an approach that resonates with traditional ways of perpetuating norms.