Classroom recordings: Utilization and influence on course performance

On May 11, 2023, the US Federal Public Health Emergency for COVID-19 officially ended, but educators are still feeling the repercussions it had on their classroom dynamics. The quick transition between in-person to 100% online, to hybrid instruction, and then back to in-person instruction, COVID-19 changed the landscape in which classes were conducted. Brick-and-mortar institutions had to quickly overcome many challenges. Faculty had to be creative and experiment with new ways to deliver material through technology.¹  Although the transition to online learning was forced on educators, many felt it helped them become more fluent in classroom digital technology.²  Learning management systems (LMS) were extensively utilized prior to the pandemic, but integration with video conferencing software with recording capacity greatly increased their classroom utility as they could now be used for video capture. The transition between online, hybrid, and the eventual return to in-person instruction allowed educators to determine the best way to proceed with newly learned tools and resources.² 

Previously, attendance was shown to be the most accurate predictor of academic performance in both undergraduates and medical students.^3–5  Poor attendance has been a topic of concern for decades and continues to worsen, especially with the introduction of recorded options.^6–8  Other factors impacting live lecture attendance include personal learning preferences, desire for greater autonomy, and perceived low value of the course.⁸  Lack of student attendance is a source of frustration for faculty since class time is a valuable opportunity to assist students as they develop their knowledge and clinical skills.⁹  After quarantine and social-distancing restrictions were lifted, educators hoped students would sprint back to campus and the joy of teaching to full classrooms would return. Since COVID-19, attendance has significantly declined.¹⁰  Learners who opt for online options over live lecture often do so to have autonomy over lecture timing, control of video speed, and perceived improvement in productivity by utilizing lecture time to study for other courses.⁴  Providing lecture capture videos may have benefits for students, such as providing better work-life balance, helps fill in gaps missed, captioning can help overcome language barriers and provides support for those with disabilities, and offers students an opportunity to revisit difficult material.¹¹  Students may choose to study for other courses, whether in class or by not attending, due to time constraints and perceived efficiency. In essence, putting themselves further behind on course material and negatively impacting subsequent course performance.^12–14  Video technology is not without its disadvantages. Along with declining attendance, other disadvantages include frequent technical difficulties, lack of classroom interaction, student procrastination or reluctance to watch, and encouragement of superficial learning of lecture material.¹¹ 

By providing video recordings, not only are we providing a potential lecture substitute, but students may also perceive that rewatching videos is an appropriate way to study. Ness et al¹⁵  found that audio content played back at double speed led to poorer performance on a multiple-choice posttest. The impact of lecture capture on student performance is unclear. Some studies show improved grade performance when video lectures are available,^16,17  but studies quantitatively assessing video use are either neutral or indicate a negative impact.^14,18–22  In an undergraduate population, failure rates increased in physiology courses upon introduction of lecture capture videos, although attendance and study habits of the population are unclear.¹⁴  There were no significant differences in long-term test scores in doctor of pharmacy students who studied by either rewatching videos or retrieval practice, although students perceived rewatching as a significantly more effective method of studying.¹⁸  Some evidence suggests that poorer performing students may be disproportionately harmed by the availability of lecture capture videos.^14,23 

After the return to classroom instruction, some elements of online teaching carried over, such as continued lecture recordings. Palmer College of Chiropractic required basic science courses to continue to produce video recordings, as either a full lecture capture or a shorter summary video to be given as supplementary materials for in-person course. Twelve out of 14 basic science faculty produced lecture capture videos, while 2 made shorter summary videos. None of the videos contained interactive elements, they were not integrated into course materials, and no clear expectation of use was presented to students. The faculty expressed concern with attendance being poor and suggested that the lecture recordings were adding to this problem. This presented an opportunity for the authors to reflect on whether the recorded resources provided during the pandemic are still necessary. By providing recorded lectures, this allows students the flexibility and autonomy to determine where, when, and how they study.^15,24  However, does this flexibility and autonomy also encourage lower lecture attendance and develop poor study habits? The purpose of this study was to assess the extent and purpose of video usage, perceived benefits, and impact of video use on course performance within first-year basic science courses in an accredited chiropractic curriculum.

All first-year students enrolled in basic science courses at the Davenport, Iowa, campus of Palmer College of Chiropractic during the summer trimester of 2022 were invited to participate. No inducement was offered and students participated voluntarily. Exemption was granted from the Palmer College of Chiropractic institutional review board (X2022-007). During the first 2 weeks of the trimester, a paper survey was administered in a course in second, third, and fourth trimester assessing video usage from courses completed the previous term. Courses in which the survey was administered were chosen based on historical attendance above 70%.

Informed consent was obtained prior to paper survey distribution. A verbal description of the project was given, and written consent was obtained. By agreeing to participate, students also granted the researchers access to the prior-term final course grades and exam scores in which they were enrolled.

A survey was developed to explore student use of video lecture recording in basic science courses. The survey consisted of 9 questions assessing classroom attendance, video use frequency, reason for use, and perception of utility. All questions were presented in a matrix listing courses to evaluate and 4- or 5-point Likert scales. The number of basic science courses assessed included 6 for first trimester, 5 for second trimester, and 7 for third trimester. Students on special schedules were given space to fill in other courses completed the previous term that were not included in the matrix.

Video use, including both lecture capture and summaries, was addressed using 3 questions. The first used a 4-point Likert scale to rank overall video use including “not at all,” “very little,” “some,” and “a lot.” The second assessed the number of videos watched over the trimester per course and the third looked at average weekly time spent viewing recordings from “< 30 minutes,” “30–60 minutes,” “60–90 minutes,” “90–120 minutes,” and “>120 minutes.” Student attendance was reported using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from “nearly always” to “hardly ever.” A separate question asked how many times students opted to watch the videos instead of face-to-face lectures for each individual course over the trimester.

Other questions addressed student use characteristics, such as reasons for video use, where the videos were viewed, and with whom. The survey also contained 3 open-ended questions addressing reasons for using or not using the provided recordings. Finally, 4 demographic questions were included. The survey was pretested on content experts and student volunteers to assess timing and question clarity.

A list of consenting students was provided to the Center for Teaching and Learning, which gathered exam scores and overall course grades for each class in which they were enrolled in the previous term. Survey responses were matched with each student’s grades, deidentified, and provided for statistical analysis by another team member.

Survey data was entered into SPSS version 28.0 (IBM Corp) and Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corp). Data were summarized using descriptive statistics. For each of the 18 individual courses, independent t tests were used to compare grade performance of students who utilized video recordings vs those who did not use the videos to address the first research question. Statistical significance was set at p < .05. For classes reaching statistical significance, Cohen’s d was calculated to determine effect sizes. Interpretation of Cohen’s d utilized 0.20, 0.50, and 0.80 as indicative of small, medium, and large effect sizes, respectively.^25,26  Open-ended questions were evaluated using an inductive approach to thematic analysis.

Three trimesters of courses constituting 260 students completed the questionnaire, yielding a total of 1355 student data points over the 18 courses assessed. The combined cohort was 52% female with an average age of 24.2 years, 83% were Caucasian, and 75% hold a bachelor’s degree or higher. Demographic data was similar between all 3 cohorts assessed, as seen in Table 1. Enrollment data and response rates for each individual course are found in Tables 2–4. Response rates ranged from 72% for students enrolled in Neuroanatomy I to 99% in Organ Histology.

Any video use was found to negatively impact exam scores and overall course performance (Tables 2–4). Out of the 18 courses assessed, only 5 were found to be statistically significant. In trimester 1: Neuroanatomy I (p = .010); trimester 2: Gross Anatomy II (p = .007); and trimester 3: Neuroanatomy II (p = .020), Organ Histology (p = .003), and Endocrinology (p = .001) were found to have significantly lower exam averages and overall course grades in students who reported using course videos. In these classes, video users scored on average 6.2% lower on exams and final grades were 5.5% lower in significant courses. All statistically significant courses posted full lecture recordings on the learning management system (LMS). Conversely, video users in Biochemistry I scored nearly 10% higher on exams, although results were not statistically significant.

Effect sizes using Cohen’s d were calculated for all statistically significant courses (Table 5). Moderate effect sizes were observed for video use on exam and overall course performance for all classes, apart from exam grades in Endocrinology, which showed a large effect size (d = 0.806). Overall, use of videos caused a moderate to large effect on decreased student performance.

Overall, 68.8% of students reported attending lectures “nearly always,” although reported attendance did decrease as students progressed through the curriculum. Overall, “nearly always attended” lecture was chosen by 82.4% of first trimester students, 55.7% of second trimester students, and 42.3% of third trimester students. Similarly, the number of students using video recordings to replace lecture increased from 21.9% in first trimester to 53.2% in third trimester. Collectively, 11.4% of students reported using videos to replace more than 20 lectures the previous term. This trend seemed to be most prominent for second trimester students.

Students rated their time spent watching videos per course as minutes per week averaged over the term. Most students (62.0%) reported using videos < 30 minutes each week, while a minor student population (8.4%) watched at least 90 minutes of videos each week. More time spent watching videos was associated with decreased classroom attendance. Most (75.0%) students watched videos at home alone, while < 5% reported watching with others.

Student ratings of course recordings as either “somewhat” or “extremely helpful” differed by trimester, as shown by 50.8% of first trimester, 61.6% of second trimester, and 45.2% of third trimester students responses. The perceived helpfulness of videos was associated with heavier usage, primarily to study for exams. Less than 6% of students noted using video recordings to prepare for lecture, while 42.4% utilized video recordings for exam preparation.

Shorter summary videos were preferred by 73.7% of students over full lecture recordings. Only 4 of the 18 courses produced summary videos during the assessment period. Students rated courses providing summary videos higher in perceived helpfulness. For example, 86.1% of Biochemistry I students rated course summary videos as “somewhat” or “extremely helpful.” Open-ended responses stated that students preferred shorter videos because they are “easier to watch, less time, [and] more helpful” (Student 3-22), “I didn’t get lost in the details and they were quick and easy to watch” (Student 2-41), and it makes it “easier to pay attention” (Student 4-55).

Open-ended questions assessed student beliefs about video helpfulness. Several themes surfaced that were similar for first and second trimester students. Students identified being able to use video recordings for review or study purposes as their major use. Other common themes identified included being able to control the speed of recording, use of parts of videos to filling gaps or missing information from notes, being able to hear the material again, and identify important concepts or instructor emphasis.

Compared to students in earlier trimesters, many more third trimester students identified being able to fill in missing information or gaps and the ability to use video recordings to replace lecture. Several students used the example of feeling more comfortable not attending class to study for exams in other courses, knowing they could use the videos to catch up.

Students not using the video recordings were asked to expand on their reasoning for lack of use. The most common reason for all trimesters was that students already attended lectures and did not feel the need to listen to the same material again. For example, student 4-16 stated “I attended all classes, and the material covered in class was more than sufficient to do well in the classes. Professors taught classes in ways that furthered my understanding. I would list going to class as the #1 reason I did so well in my classes.” The lack of clear, consistent guidelines in video production and dissemination led to decreased use. Students explained that some faculty members did not post recordings regularly, they were difficult to find on the LMS, or the inability to control playback speed was a deterrent for use.

By supplying videos, a potentially useful resource is provided. However, students may be utilizing videos as a substitute for classroom attendance. In this study, student-reported classroom attendance decreased as they progressed through the first year. Similar trends were seen in undergraduate populations, where attendance decreased and video use increased further along in the program, especially in health science courses.^27,28  Factors influencing live lecture attendance include the perceived educational value of the lecture, timing of the class, and qualities of the lecturer.^6,29,30  Perhaps now is the time to reimagine the educational experience students are currently getting and determine a better way to improve student engagement and the perceived value of the live lecture.

Students may be relying on the recordings due to inappropriate time management or lack of study skills. Taking notes verbatim from the recording is often viewed as effective studying and is perceived by students as one of the best means to improve learning, contrary to exam scores.^31,32  Memorizing information is still interpreted by students as actual learning.³²  Upon exam review, students often express that exam performance did not reflect their perceived knowledge or the amount of time spent preparing. Similarly, Schnee et al¹⁹  found that students who attend class and rewatch full-lecture recordings scored significantly lower on exams. Lecture videos are commonly used as a study tool to prepare for exams.^30,33  In the current study, students reported mainly utilizing videos as a study tool right before a test or quiz. Rewatching videos, especially those verbatim to what was already heard, is often mistaken as learning or time spent studying. Palmer et al¹⁸  assessed students assigned to a “rewatch” group compared to an “immediate retrieval” group. Retrieval of information through quizzing immediately after learning the material significantly enhanced student learning, while rewatching lecture videos and not being quizzed over the information significantly impaired student learning and course performance. Palmer et al¹⁸  also found that students assigned to rewatch videos spent triple the time studying compared to the retrieval practice group. Therefore, rewatching lecture capture videos as a study tool is neither as effective nor efficient as other learning strategies. By providing students with recordings, greater value may be placed on them, creating a false sense of studying, and an illusion of mastery of course material. Studies are needed to determine if explicit instructions on proper video use alters student habits and influences course performance.

Mental health of students has been a longstanding concern for institutions of higher education, which was exacerbated by the pandemic.³⁴  Student focus groups conducted by Dommett et al³⁵  suggested use of recorded videos could be used by students who have anxiety about large lecture learning, while others have found that the use of video capture may help students with language barriers and support students with learning disabilities.^36–38  Lecture video availability may provide a greater sense of autonomy for the student. In this study, many student comments expressed the benefit of having the lecture capture videos available as a backup in case they were needed. Furthermore, controlling the pace or speed of the lecture was one of the main reasons students opted to use video recordings if that feature was available. Controlling the speed of the video allows students to control their cognitive load.²⁷  By asserting some control over the amount of material consumed and the pace at which it is disbursed, student self-efficacy may improve. However, the current video tool utilized by the college does not allow for either speed control or closed captioning.

It is important to point out that most studies assessing use of video recordings and student study skills occurred prior to the pandemic. This may not be an accurate representation of the student population currently enrolled in higher education. Students assessed in this research project were either in their final year of high school or undergraduate program during the height of the pandemic. These are formative years for students to develop study skills and learning strategies. As educators, we may need to spend time helping postpandemic students develop the skills they are lacking, especially when it comes to appropriate use of video recordings.^39,40  Nordmann et al³¹  developed a best practice guide for video use, which includes: attend lecture regularly, use recordings to revisit pieces of information not understood, always paraphrase video material, wait 2–3 days to rewatch videos, only watch full recordings to catch up on missed lectures, watched missed videos within 1 week and at normal speed, and always be willing to ask for help or clarification from peers or the instructor.

In the current study, video use in Biochemistry I was associated with a nonsignificant increase in test scores by nearly 10%. This was the only course to provide summary videos uploaded to YouTube and linked to the LMS, allowing students to utilize closed captioning and playback speed control. Further exploration determined that Biochemistry I provided not only summary videos, but also several review videos used for studying that were heavily utilized by students. The 3 students who did not use videos had a very large grade distribution, leading to the lack of statistical significance. The high usage rates in Biochemistry I may be due to providing short summary videos with access to speed control and closed captioning, offering students a greater feeling of control over their cognitive load. As faculty members, we need to be cognizant of the extraneous load we are contributing by providing videos with unclear instruction, lengthy videos, and inconsistent language.⁴¹  The college may consider developing a policy encompassing best practices for video production and dissemination to better meet the students’ needs and reassess the capabilities of the available video tools.

The unvalidated survey was given to a convenience sample of students during the Summer 2022 trimester (August 2022) about their Spring 2022 basic science courses. Students were asked to recall items, such as attendance habits, use of the recorded resources, and preferences during that trimester; however, students may have found it challenging to remember the information accurately in retrospect. Currently, students may view the videos on the LMS where the videos are posted or an additional app. Neither the LMS nor the app track student usage data; therefore, student reported use is the best available evidence. There also may have been some underrepresentation of students who were repeating courses. Students repeating courses were separately invited to participate in the survey, but very few responses were collected. Additionally, the level of student engagement when present in class was not measured, which may have impacted results.

Shorter summary videos were widely preferred by students, but only provided by a few faculty members. Postpandemic students who perceived the videos as being more helpful were more likely to use them, primarily to study for exams. Students who used video recordings for exam preparation had lower exam scores and worse course performance in basic science classes. Rewatching video recordings should not be encouraged as a study tool without additional skills training for students.

We would like to thank Ms. Jody Graham and Mrs. Jennifer Hansen for their help compiling student academic information and Dr. Dustin Derby for his statistical assistance.