ABSTRACT DeYoe, H.; Lonard, R.I.; Judd, F.W.; Stalter, R., and Feller, I., 2020. Biological flora of the tropical and subtropical intertidal zone: Literature review for Rhizophora mangle L. Journal of Coastal Research, 36(4), 857–884. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. Rhizophora mangle L. is a tropical and subtropical mangrove species that occurs as a dominant tree species in the intertidal zone of low-energy shorelines. Rhizophora mangle plays an important role in coastal zones as habitat for a wide range of organisms of intertidal food webs, as a natural barrier to coastal erosion, and as carbon sequestration. A review of mangrove literature has been performed, but a review specifically on red mangroves has not. The approach was to cover a broad range of topics with a focus on topics that have seen significant work since the 1970s. This review includes a brief introduction to red mangroves and then focuses on the following topics: biogeography, habitats and zonation, geomorphological interactions, taxonomy, histology, anatomy, physiological ecology, productivity, biomass, litter, reproduction, population biology, plant communities, interactions with other species, impacts of storms, reforestation, remote sensing, modelling, and economic importance.

ABSTRACT Lonard, R.I.; Judd, F.W.; Summy, K.R.; DeYoe, H., and Stalter, R., 2017. The biological flora of coastal dunes and wetlands: Avicennia germinans (L.) L. Avicennia germinans (L.) L. is a pantropical, subtropical, and occasionally warm-temperate mangrove species that occurs on shorelines that have a broad horizontal tidal range. Also known as black mangrove, stands typically develop under anoxic, water-logged conditions in substrates of silt or clay. Black mangrove can tolerate salinity values ranging from 0 to 90 parts per thousand. Salt is excreted from salt glands on both leaf epidermal surfaces, and aerosol salt spray and salt crystals are frequently observed on the upper leaf epidermis. Avicennia germinans is viviparous. The embryos have no dormancy requirements, and there is no seed bank. This mangrove species has the northernmost distributional range of any mangrove species in North America. It occurs in Louisiana and northern Florida. Color-infrared photography and airborne video imagery techniques have been used successfully to map stands of black mangrove on subtropical coastal shorelines. Reforestation efforts using seedlings and saplings have been successful in several areas of the tropics and subtropics. Avicennia germinans stands play an important role in ecosystem functions as a natural barrier to coastal erosion caused by tropical storms, as habitat for a wide range of organisms in intertidal food chains, and as a carbon repository.

ABSTRACT Lonard, R.I.; Judd, F.W., and Stalter, R., 2015. The biological flora of coastal dunes and wetlands: Solidago sempervirens L. and Solidago sempervirens L. subsp. mexicana (L.) Semple. Solidago sempervirens L. and Solidago sempervirens L. subsp. mexicana (L.) Semple are New World humid continental, temperate, subtropical, and tropical maritime taxa. Both taxa are long-lived perennials that occur in wet mineral sands and clay soils. Reproduction is primarily vegetative in stable sites. However, achene/seed production is prolific, and seed viability is high in either stable or disturbed sites. Also known as seaside goldenrod, both taxa occur in conditions ranging from freshwater to salinity conditions of 40 parts per thousand. Seeds and seedlings do not tolerate excessive burial, but high levels of sand deposition are associated with plant vigor in mature clones. Optimal growth for both taxa occurs in habitats with increasing distance from the water table.

ABSTRACT Lonard, R.I.; Judd, F.W., and Stalter, R., 2015. Biological flora of coastal dunes and wetlands: Borrichia frutescens (L.) DC. Borrichia frutescens (L.) DC. is a New World warm-temperate, subtropical, and tropical zone, perennial subshrub that is an important species in hypersaline coastal sites. Also known as sea ox-eye, it tolerates salinities ranging from less than 20 ppt to 130 ppt. It occurs in substrates low in organic matter and deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Nearly all reproduction is vegetative from an extensive rhizome system. Populations of this species recover quickly after coverage by wrack. Stands of B. frutescens often dominate the landward border of salt marshes.

ABSTRACT Lonard, R.I.; Judd, F.W., and Stalter, R., 2015. Biological flora of coastal dunes and wetlands: Paspalum vaginatum Sw. Paspalum vaginatum Sw. is a warm temperate, subtropical, pantropical, stoloniferous, and rhizomatous grass that is an important species in brackish marshes, salt marshes, and occasionally on the margins of mangrove swamps. Also known as seashore paspalum , it tolerates salinity regimes ranging from freshwater to hypersalinity conditions of 50 ppt. Paspalum vaginatum is important in shoreline stabilization and enhances habitat restoration efforts. Numerous cultivars have been selected as turfgrasses for use in saline sites because this species can be irrigated with full-strength seawater.

ABSTRACT Lonard, R.I.; Judd, F.W., and Stalter, R., 2013. The biological flora of coastal dunes and wetlands: Distichlis spicata (C. Linnaeus) E. Greene. Distichlis spicata (C. Linnaeus) E. Greene is a New World temperate-, subtropical-, and tropical-zone rhizomatous, dioecious grass. It is an important species in coastal salt marshes, brackish marshes, and tidal wetlands, where it is often a dominant species. Inland ecotypes of this taxon occur in wet alkaline sites throughout temperate regions of the United States, Mexico, and South America. Distichlis spicata often occurs in wetlands, where total soluble salts seasonally range from about 20 to 43 ppt and where the pH varies from 5 to 7. Higher salinities in the rhizome–root matrix reduce shoot growth more than root growth. Also known as salt grass, D. spicata is a clonal stress tolerator that spreads laterally into disturbed sites in the upper marsh, and it recovers quickly from burial by wrack debris after storms. A typical water level range for salt grass is from 10 to 15 cm below to 5 cm above the marsh surface, but it can tolerate tidal amplitudes ranging from 1.36 to 1.74 m for 1 hour on some coastlines. Pistillate plants typically dominate lower elevations in tidal marshes, whereas higher elevations in marshes support populations dominated by male plants. Herein, we present a review of the biology of this important species.

ABSTRACT Lonard, R.I.; Judd, F.W., and Stalter, R., 2014. The biological flora of coastal dunes and wetlands: Distichlis littoralis (Engelm.) H.L. Bell & Columbus. Distichlis littoralis (Engelm.) H.L. Bell & Columbus = Monanthochloë littoralis Engelm. is a New World temperate- and subtropical-zone perennial grass that is an important species in hypersaline coastal landscapes. Also known as shoregrass, it tolerates salinities twice that of seawater. It occurs in soils low in organic matter and deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Dense, monotypic populations of D. littoralis eliminate nearly all competing annuals in harsh coastal habitats. Distichlis littoralis provides limited cover and limited nutrition for resident and migratory birds.

ABSTRACT Lonard, R.I.; Judd, F.W., and Stalter, R., 2013. The biological flora of coastal dunes and wetlands: Sporobolus virginicus (C. Linnaeus) K. Kunth. Sporobolus virginicus (C. Linnaeus) K. Kunth is a warm temperate, subtropical, and pantropical rhizomatous grass. It is an important species in foredunes, primary dunes, interdunal depressions, salt marshes, brackish marshes, and on the margins of salt pans where it is often a dominant species. Sporobolus virginicus is a euhalophyte that tolerates soluble salts ranging from 3 to 94 parts per thousand, and where the pH varies from 6 to 8.8. This species is freeze sensitive at −2.5°C with no hardening capacity. Also known as seashore dropseed, seedlings are sensitive to tidal inundation, but established plants are not affected by waterlogged conditions. The species is important for controlling beach erosion and for stabilizing sandy substrates. Stands of S. virginicus provide food for livestock and wildlife. Herein, we present a review of the biology of this important species.

LONARD, R.I.; JUDD, F.W., and STALTER, R., 2012. The biological flora of coastal dunes and wetlands: Salicornia bigelovii J. Torrey. Salicornia bigelovii J. Torrey is a New World tropical-, subtropical-, and temperate-zone annual, succulent halophyte that is an important pioneer species in hypersaline coastal landscapes. Also known as annual glasswort, it ranks as one of the world's most salt-tolerant land vascular plants. It tolerates salinities as high as 120 ppt. Optimal growth of S. bigelovii occurs where competing cover of perennials is low. Salicornia bigelovii has potential as a crop plant in arid coastal sites.

Heterotheca subaxillaris (J. de Lamarck) N. Britton & H. Rusby is a New World aromatic, pioneer species that rapidly colonizes disturbed, xeric habitats on temperate and subtropical coastal dunes. Also known as camphorweed, H. subaxillaris has low moisture requirements, and it tolerates low nutrient levels and high sand temperatures. Dimorphic achenes have a dual germination strategy. Disc achenes are nondormant, and seeds germinate over a wide range of temperature conditions, whereas ray achenes are dormant at maturity and require after-ripening before seed germination. Heterotheca subaxillaris competes well with other species in disturbed sites, but growth and reproduction are inhibited when it is in competition with dominant dune grasses.

Uniola paniculata C. Linnaeus is a New World, tropical-, subtropical-, and temperate-zone, rhizomatous grass that is often a dominant species on foredunes and on the primary dune complex. Uniola paniculata L. has low freshwater-moisture requirements, tolerates aerosol salt spray, has low nutrient level requirements, tolerates high sand temperatures, and provides extensive sand coverage. Also known as sea oats , this grass inhabits mobile and semistable dune systems and plays a significant role in trapping sand and building primary dunes. Caryopsis production is low. However, germination is enhanced by cutting into the endosperm and leaching the caryopses. Northern populations require cold treatment before germination, but southern populations are not dependent on cold treatment before exposure to a germination protocol with a 35/25°C thermoperiod.

Batis maritima C. Linnaeus (maritime saltwort) is a New World subtropical and tropical trailing subshrub that forms dense colonies in salt marshes, brackish marshes, and mangrove swamps and frequently is found on the margins of salt pans and wind-tidal flats. It typically occurs at elevations less than 1.0 m above mean sea level and at sites where salinity ranges from 18 to 50 ppt. Leaf succulence increases significantly in the dry season and leaves are shed, thereby reducing salt-induced stress. Batis maritima occurs in sites normally subject to minimal sand coverage. However, wrack deposits stimulate growth. Maritime saltwort provides cover and nesting sites for some species of birds, but glucosinolate compounds in shoots make the plants unpalatable to most large vertebrates, with the exception of marine iguanas in the Galapagos Islands. Recently, B. maritima is proposed to have a major role in reducing ozone levels in the stratosphere.

Spartina patens (W. Aiton) G.H. Muhlenberg is a New World tropical-, subtropical-, and temperate-zone rhizomatous grass that often is a dominant species in coastal environments. It occurs in habitats ranging from foredunes to saturated soil conditions in high marshes and swales. Herein, we present a review of the extensive literature of this important species. Spartina patens occurs where salinity ranges from 1 to 27 ppt, but it will tolerate salinities up to 40 ppt for brief periods. It tolerates moderate tidal inundation, low nutrient levels, and low to moderate sand coverage. Also known as marshhay cordgrass, it may account for almost all net productivity in high marshes on the Gulf of Mexico coast of Louisiana. High marshes dominated by S. patens are affected by flooding depths associated with global warming and rising sea levels. It is a valuable species for coastal restoration projects for it quickly invades dredged material and storm washover sites. Spartina patens provides cover for wildlife and forage for livestock.