Practices and Challenges of Household Solid Waste Management in Woldia Town, Northeastern Ethiopia

Background. The rapid growth of urban populations has led to a dramatic increase in urban waste generation with environmental and public health problems associated with water contamination, emission of toxic and noxious fumes, soil contamination and introduction of disease vector populations. Objectives. The aim of the present study was to assess solid waste disposal practices and challenges of solid waste management in Woldia town, northeastern Ethiopia. Methods. A descriptive research design was employed, using a survey method and naturalistic observational methods. A total of 236 households were surveyed, including waste collectors and cleaners, waste pickers, and 20 students and ten teachers from Woldia secondary and preparatory schools. A purposive sampling technique (made up of municipal officers, scavengers (waste pickers), waste collectors and cleaners and a simple random sampling technique (of teachers, students and kebeles of the study area) was employed, then proportional allocation was made for each randomly selected kebeles based on population size to determine the sample. Finally, survey questionnaire, interview, focus group discussion and observation were used as data collecting tools. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were also employed. Results. The current study revealed that educational status (AOR = 10.92, 95% CI = (3.12–38.27)), occupational status (AOR = 8.08, 95% CI = (2.08–31.31)), monthly income (AOR = 5.72, 95% CI = (1.55–21.13)), and age (AOR = 2.53, 95% CI = (1.04–6.19)) were found to be the major factors associated with solid waste management practices. Additionally, shortage of storage materials, lack of alternative waste disposal options, household attitudes, and lack of awareness were the major challenges for low performance of solid waste management practices of the local government and households. The focus group individuals and interviewed participants indicated that solid waste management practices were poor. Conclusions. The present study revealed that solid waste management practices in Woldia town remain inadequate. Therefore, efforts by the municipality and other stakeholders are needed to mitigate the problem of waste management and disposal practices. Participant Consent. Obtained Ethics Approval. The study was approved by the Institutional Research Ethics Review committee (IRERC) of Woldia University Competing Interests. The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Research is one aspect of the environmental crisis in Woldia town. As much of the waste is landfilled, that represents a loss of materials that could be reused, recycled, or converted to energy to displace the use of virgin materials. The primary SWM activities involve the collection, storage, transportation, processing, treatment, recycling, and final disposal of waste. 1 In urban cities of LMICs, management of solid waste remains poor. 2,3 Good solid waste management practices protect the environment from the risk of ineffective disposal system of solid wastes. Discarded solid wastes generate a large volume of polluted leachates that contains high concentrations of toxic compounds which pose a risk to the ecosystem 5 and may introduce disease vector populations. 4 Improper waste disposal and management may result in health and environmental problems and may become life threatening. Water, soil, and air pollution have been attributed to improper disposal and management of solid waste. 3 The rate of solid waste production is increasing with population growth, technological development, and changes in lifestyle. 6 In LMICs, improper handling and disposal of solid waste contributes to high levels of mortality and morbidity. 7 A study conducted by Selin reported that discarded solid wastes can have severe health effects on residents due to its infectious, toxic or radioactive nature. 8 According to Kimani, in conjunction with the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) the public health effects from municipal wastes include severe illness among residents, including skin disorders, respiratory abnormalities, abdominal and intestinal problems, dental disorders, ear infections, skeletal muscular systems (back pain), central nervous system (neurological impairment), eye infections, blood disorders (anemia), malaria, chicken pox, septic wounds and congenital abnormalities, cardiovascular disease and lung cancer. 9 The present study is also relevant to the development of pollution control technologies, as more rigorous legislation and strategies on waste handling and disposal are needed to minimize environmental pollution and risks to public health. Most LMIC countries recognize that solid waste management is needed to secure the safety of the environment and human health. 10 However, SWM is a critical challenge for LMIC countries including Ethiopia because of the social, economic, and environmental implications. Ethiopia is facing rapid urbanization leading to overcrowding and development of informal settlements with poor waste management practices. Solid waste management is becoming a major public health and environmental concern in urban areas of Ethiopia, as only 2% of the population receives solid waste collection services. 11 Ethiopia has ratified several international conventions that have important implications for solid waste management in the country. 10 Woldia is a rapidly growing town in Ethiopia. A study done by Semaw indicated that solid waste management in Woldia town is inadequate primarily due the absence of suitable waste disposal sites and suggests that the selection of suitable waste disposal sites may address this problem. 12 However, that study was not able to examine detailed aspects of solid waste management practices and challenges. Solid waste generation rates in Woldia town are increasing along with population growth rates over time. This rapid increase in population together with rapid development in the town has produced increasing volumes of solid waste, and consequently greater public health risks. The objectives of the present study were to assess solid waste disposal practices and challenges of solid waste management in Woldia town, Ethiopia, to examine the institutional and community participation in solid waste management practices, and to identify the types of solid wastes from different sites in the town.

Study design
The present study employed a descriptive research design method using survey and observational methods.

Sample size determination
To select households to assess the current status of household solid waste management practices in Woldia town, the sample size was determined using the statistical method of Cochran (Equation 1), assuming a non-response rate of 5% and design effect of 1.5. 14

Equation 1
Thus, Where n= sample size of housing units, z = standardized normal variable and its value corresponding to a 95% confidence interval equals 1.96, d = allowable error (0.05), and P= 0.11 (11%) for the proportion of households expected to practice proper household solid waste management. 15 Adding 5% for nonresponses and multiplying the sample size by 1.5 for design effect, the sample size was increased to 236 respondents (households). 15 All waste collectors and cleaners in the town (60), all officers accountable for Woldia town sanitation (11), 236 households, 43 scavengers (waste pickers), and 20 students (10 from Woldia Millennium secondary school and 10 from Woldia secondary and preparatory school) and 10 teachers (5 from Woldia Millennium secondary school and five (5) from Woldia secondary and preparatory school) were also considered due to assumptions that they would provide better information on the topic and due to proximity to the town.

Sampling
The purposive sampling technique was used to select municipal officers, scavengers (waste pickers), all of the waste collectors and cleaners in Woldia town and the simple random sampling technique was also used to select students and teachers from secondary and preparatory schools. For household selection, based on geographical location of the town, the six kebeles were divided into three strata. A kebele is the smallest Research administrative unit in Ethiopia, similar to a ward or a neighborhood. Next, one kebele was selected from each stratum using the random sampling technique. Finally, households were selected proportionally from the three kebeles based on their population size ( Figure 2).

Data collection instruments
Structured and standardized questionnaires were adapted from the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS), English version (Supplemental Material 1). 16 The questionnaire was further developed by reviewing the literature and relevant factors such as financial budget and logistics, provision of municipal infrastructure, and the perceptions and waste disposal practices of communities were taken into consideration. 16 The statements in the questionnaire assessed household, solid waste picker, and cleaner understanding of the practice and challenges of solid waste management. Questions were translated into the local language (Amharic) by language experts. The questionnaire included both closeended and open-ended questions, demographic and socio-economic characteristics, and the current situation of household solid waste management practices. For household respondents, those who were above 18 years old and had resided in the town for two or more years were eligible for the questionnaire survey.
In addition, the head of household was the questionnaire respondent. Illiterate respondents were assisted by

Interview process
For the qualitative study, a total of 114 participants consisting of officers (11) from the town municipality sanitation office, scavengers (waste pickers) (43), and waste collectors and cleaners (60) were purposefully selected as key informants. Interview guides were adapted from Selin, 8 and can be found in Supplemental Material 2.

Observation
Using a checklist, photos were taken of the area for visualization (Supplemental Material 3 and 4).
Household level practices were observed, including the handling and collection of SWs, transport and disposal methods and disposal site, waste management practices along the road, drainage canals, municipality dustbins, open spaces, business areas, and marketplace.

Focus group discussion
Focus group discussion was also used to collect data from a total of 30 teachers and students. Students and teachers from both schools (Woldia Millennium secondary school and Woldia secondary and preparatory school) were grouped into three focus group discussions, each containing 8-13 individuals, and conducted in the two secondary and preparatory schools of Woldia town. Focus group participants were a small, carefully selected group and homogenous in social composition. The town sanitation officers and kebele administrators helped in identifying focus group participants in order to include participants from different religions, age, gender, classes and educational levels. Issues related to practices and challenges of household solid waste management were discussed in each focus group session.

Study variables
Household solid waste management practices across Woldia Town and its challenges were regarded as dependent variables. Gender, age, family size, educational status, income and years of residency were considered as demographic independent variables. Awareness of solid waste management, willingness to pay for waste collection services, distance from the main road, attitude, distance from waste containers and availability of other disposal places were considered as socio-economic factors as well as institutional factors like access to waste collection.

Data analysis
Quantitative data were analyzed by means of descriptive statistics and qualitative data were analyzed by narration. Data were first checked manually for completeness and then coded, entered, and analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 software using descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentage. Finally, bivariate and multivariate analysis were performed to identify significant factors associated with household solid waste management practices.

Ethics approval and consent
The study was approved by the Institutional Research Ethics Review committee (IRERC) of Woldia University after a review of the research protocol. The respondents were informed about the purpose of the study, and their oral consent was obtained. The respondents' right to refuse or withdraw from participating was fully maintained and the information provided by each respondent was kept strictly confidential. Before entering the study area to collect data, local authorities and community leaders were given information about the study objective.

Factors associated with solid waste management practices during bivariate and multivariate analysis among households in Woldia town
The binary logistic regression analysis results in Table 3 showed that average age of households (41-60), lower educational status, marital status of married or widowed, occupational status, monthly income of 2501-3500 birr (61.85-86.55 USD), and family size of 1-3 and 4-6 were found to be significantly associated with poor waste management practices.

Discussion
The present study was carried out to assess the challenges and the household solid waste management practices of the municipality and communities in Woldia town. Descriptive data analysis was performed to summarize the sociodemographic status of the respondents. In the present study, gender of respondents and duration of residency in Woldia town did not have any relationship with solid waste Research management practices. However, a comparable study performed in Dire Dawa indicated that respondents who lived there less than one year were 0.5 times less likely to have improper waste management practices compared to those who had lived there a year or more. 18 Another study in Ambo town revealed an insignificant relationship between length of residency and household solid waste management practices. 16 The present study also revealed that educational status was associated with household waste management practices. A similar study in Dire Dawa showed that those who were illiterate were two times more likely to have improper waste management practices compared to those who were literate. 18 From a housing perspective, residing in private or rental houses showed no association with solid waste management practices. However, a study conducted by Haile in Ambo town reported that of 200 households, 55% of the respondents live in rental houses either privately or kebele, and the respondents were aware of solid waste management practices. 16 The current study found that plastics and other wastes (kitchen waste, glass, and dust) were the prominent municipal wastes generated by households. However, a study conducted in Dire Dawa by Daniel et al. indicated that plastic, ash and "Khat" or "Chat" leftovers constitute the major bulk of the waste generated by households. 18 In the present study, the community and municipality did not collect or store solid wastes separately based on type ( Woldia is a rapidly growing town in Ethiopia. As a result, solid waste management is becoming a major public problem and environmental concern in kebeles across the town.

Conclusions
The current study revealed that the solid waste disposal practices of most households were poor and unregulated. Educational and marital status, family size, average monthly income, occupation and age were found to be associated with solid waste management practices. Additionally, shortage of storage materials, lack of alternative waste disposal options, inadequate access in residential areas, lack of access to MSSE services, household attitude on SWM, lack of household awareness of SWM, willingness to pay for waste collection services, availability of space in the backyard for waste disposal, and distance of household from the main road were the major challenges for low performance of solid waste management practices by municipal authorities and households. The focus group and interviewed officers, scavengers, and waste collectors and cleaners indicated that solid waste management practices were poor. They also confirmed that institutional, financial, logistical, and public participation problems were the major barriers to effective solid waste management practices. Further efforts are needed to mitigate the problem of inadequate waste management practices in Woldia town by creating awareness among communities and stakeholders.