Severe keratinous hoof afflictions have been recorded in ibex ( Capra ibex ibex ) since 1995 and more recently in mouflon ( Ovis aries musimon ) in Switzerland. Based on clinical observations and comparison with diseases known to affect domestic ungulates, it was hypothesized these wild ungulates were affected by foot rot associated with infection with Dichelobacter nodosus . Dichelobacter nodosus has been shown to be the essential pathogen for initiation and establishment of foot rot, a highly contagious foot disease of sheep and goats. Because these bacteria could not be cultivated from affected ibex, we developed a nested polymerase chain reaction that allowed detection of D. nodosus without culture. Using this assay, we were able to diagnose D. nodosus infections of ibex, mouflon, and domestic sheep in natural outbreaks. From these results we conclude that D. nodosus plays an etiological role in foot rot not only in domestic but also in wild Caprinae.

Roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ), chamois ( Rupicapra rupricapra rupicapra ), and domestic sheep in the Orobie Alps, Italy, were serologically tested for antibodies to selected pathogens that may be transmitted across species. Antibodies against Brucella spp. and bovine herpesvirus 1 (roe deer and chamois only) were not detected in any species. In roe deer, antibodies were detected against Toxoplasma gondii (13%) and Neospora caninum (3%). Chamois tested positive for antibodies to T. gondii (5%), N. caninum (21%), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) (41%), bovine parainfluenza type-3 virus (17%), pestiviruses (18%), and Mycoplasma conjunctivae (17%). In the sheep, particularly high antibody prevalence rates were found for T. gondii (78%), Chlamydophila spp. (20%), pestiviruses (90%), BRSV (82%), and M. conjunctivae (81%).

The occurrence of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) was assessed in alpine chamois ( Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra ) in Grisons (Switzerland) from 1950 to 1999. The first IKC outbreaks were reported in the 1950's. Since then, the number of affected subpopulations constantly increased and, by 1999, IKC outbreaks were reported in 39 of 51 (77%) chamois sub-populations. From 1992-99, a total of 243 chamois which died of the consequences of IKC were recorded. The number of cases differed between years, and a distinct seasonal trend was observed. Infectious keratoconjunctivitis was more common during summer and autumn, with 48% of the cases recorded in August–October. Juveniles (<4 yr of age) were mostly represented. To verify the presence of Mycoplasma conjunctivae in chamois we analyzed conjunctival swabs taken from animals affected with IKC. Among a sample of 28 affected chamois, M. conjunctivae was identified 14 times (50%). An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed to detect specific M. conjunctivae antibodies in sera of alpine chamois with IKC. We performed a serologic investigation to assess whether M. conjunctivae infection is self-maintained in the chamois population in Grisons. In subpopulations with IKC oubreaks, seroprevalence was low (8%). Seroprevalence was even lower in subpopulations with recent IKC outbreaks (3%). We concluded that the M. conjunctivae infection is not self-maintained in alpine chamois in Grisons. The agent may originate in domestic sheep living in proximity to chamois during summer. Control of IKC in chamois should consider immunoprophylaxis in sheep or limiting interspecific transmission of M. conjunctivae .

From 1997 to 2000, complete necropsy and histopathologic investigations were performed on 157 free-ranging European brown hares ( Lepus europaeus ) found dead throughout Switzerland. Organ samples of all these individuals (157 livers and 107 spleens available) were tested for European brown hare syndrome virus (EBHSV)-antigen by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test kit. Furthermore, 60 additional blood samples were tested for antibodies against EBHSV by ELISA. In addition, liver samples of 87 free-ranging mountain hares ( Lepus timidus ) hunted in 1996 were tested for EBHSV-antigen. In two European brown hares from southern Switzerland lesions suggestive of changes induced by EBHSV were present, and high titers of EBHSV-antigen were detected in both liver and spleen samples of these animals. Based on negative staining electron microscopy investigations of liver and spleen homogenates, we observed calicivirus in one antigen-positive hare. Low EBHSV-antigen titers were found in three additional European brown hares from central and western Switzerland, but EBHS-lesions were absent. Antibodies against EBHSV were not detected in any of the sera of European brown hares, and EBHSV-antigen was not found in the samples of mountain hares. This is the first report of EBHS in European brown hares from Switzerland.

Sixty chemical immobilizations of red deer ( Cervus elaphus hippelaphus ) have been carried out during an etho-ecological study from August 1994 to December 1996 in a 35 ha pen in the district of Nitra (Slovac Republic). Our objective was to determine the efficacy and standard dosages of Zoletil® and Rompun® for the immobilization of adult red deer in feral conditions as an alternative to the use of the highly toxic opioids. We therefore compared an Immobilon®-Rompun® combination (ImRo) with a 1:1 mixture of Zoletil® and Rompun® (ZoRo) as an injectable solution. Use of both combinations led to the immobilization of >92% of deer with an injection volume <3 ml. Mean (SD) dose to achieve immobilization was 35 (14) μg/kg ethorphine + 0.14 (0.056) mg/kg acepromazine + 0.36 (0.14) mg/kg xylazine compared to 1.2 (0.8) mg/kg tiletamine + 1.2 (0.8) mg/kg zolazepam + 2.3 (1.6) mg/kg xylazine. This corresponds to a volume of 1.8 (0.7) ml/100 kg body mass (BM) for ImRo (range = 1.0 to 4.6) and to 2.3 (1.6) ml/100 kg BM for ZoRo (range = 0.7 to 4.0), respectively. Heart rate, respiratory rate and oxyhaemoglobin saturation values did not differ significantly between the two groups during immobilization. Three deer (5%) died during immobilization, but fatalities could not be directly associated with the drug effect. Mean (SD) time from darting to complete immobilization was 5.5 (4.2) min for ImRo and 7.5 (6.1) min for ZoRo, respectively. Differences were not statistically significant. Anesthesia with both combinations of immobilizing agents could be reversed within 2 min using sarmazenile-yohimbine for ZoRo and diprenorphine-yohimbine for ImXy immobilizations, respectively. We conclude that the 1:1 combination of Zoletil® and xylazine is a valuable alternative to the use of opioids for the immobilization of adult red deer including feral adult animals.

The humoral immune response of three alpine chamois ( Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra ), two alpine ibex ( Capra ibex ibex ) and three domestic sheep naturally affected with infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC), and four ibex and two sheep experimentally infected with Mycoplasma conjunctivae was analysed. In addition, the local immune response to M. conjunctivae was analysed using conjunctival washes from chamois and sheep. Immunoblot analysis of sera using whole cell antigens of M. conjunctivae revealed the major immunogenic proteins which had molecular masses of 175, 83, 68, 60, 50, 42, 36, and 33 kDa. Major antigens were found at 83, 68, 60, and 42 kDa in both sera and conjunctival washes from naturally infected animals of all three Caprinae species. In experimentally infected animals, antibodies to the 68 and 60 kDa antigens were dominant. Naturally infected animals showed much stronger immune reactions than those experimentally infected, and specific antibodies appeared 2 to 4 wk after experimental infection. To evaluate possible cross-reactions, whole cell antigen of M. conjunctivae was analysed by immunoblot against hyperimmune sera of closely related Mycoplasma spp. Antibodies to the 175, 73, 68, 60, and 33 kDa antigens appeared to be specific to M. conjunctivae . Cross-reactions mainly with 83, 50, and 42 kDa antigens were detected, in particular with M. ovipneumoniae and M. bovoculi hyperimmune sera, but also with antisera against M. capricolum capricolum and M. putrefaciens .

Following a severe infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) epizootic in free-ranging alpine ibex ( Capra ibex ibex ) in Switzerland in 1993, 19 animals were examined from six different populations. Mucopurulent exudates, reddened conjunctiva and mononuclear inflammatory cell infiltration in the conjunctiva and the limbic area were observed in mild cases. In more severe cases, lesions ranged from perilimbic neovascularization to corneal edema, erosion, ulceration and neovascularization accompanied by infiltration of neutrophils. Sometimes an iridocyclitis was observed. In the most advanced stages, the cornea was perforated and an anterior synechia was present. Lesions found in ibex affected with IKC indicated a non-generalized, specific ocular disease. The other organs investigated did not show alterations suggestive of changes induced by agents which might cause IKC, including Chlamydia spp. and Mycoplasma , spp. The microbiological findings indicate that Mycoplasma conjunctivae is the primary pathogenic agent causing IKC in this species in Switzerland.