ABSTRACT
In the current study, scleractinian corals from the Albian (uppermost Lower Cretaceous; 112.6–99.7 Ma) including 337 species (280 taxa assigned to species; 57 taxa kept in open nomenclature) from 147 genera (six of which include subgenera) belonging to 42 families (two of which include subfamilies; and incertae sedis) are evaluated and revised. Two new species (Apoplacophyllia asiatica, new species and Trigerastraea sikharulidzeae, new species) are described and two lectotypes are designated. Some specimens are illustrated for the first time, and new material (from Austria) is presented. The coral material includes records from 30 regions in Africa, the Americas, the Arctic, Asia, Australasia, and Europe. The most extensive records of Albian corals are from tropical/subtropical and arid areas, including the U.S.A., Mexico, Greece, France, and Spain. Over three-quarters of the Albian taxa belong to morphological forms having little to no hermatypic character (sensu Coates & Oliver), including species of the cerioid-plocoid group (genera: 36.7%; species: 38.5%), solitary taxa (genera: 26.5%; species: 28%), and branching forms (genera: 26.5%; 39 species = 11.5%). The coral faunas of the Albian are dominated by corals of “modern” microstructural groups sensu Roniewicz & Morycowa (76 genera = 51.7%; 169 species = 50.1%). Compared to the lowermost Cretaceous (Berriasian), which showed that 91% of the species and 83% of the genera belonged to previously established microstructural groups, the Lower Cretaceous ends with “modern” groups having become dominant. During the lower and middle Albian, the vast majority of taxa belonged to colonial forms (both 74%). A shift took place during the upper Albian, significantly increasing the number of solitary species to over 40% of the Albian fauna (42.9%). Throughout the Albian, the most diverse coral assemblages include non-reefal faunas, suggesting that, in contrast to, e.g., the Barremian–Aptian time period, reefal developments were less crucial for coral recruitment during this time. This study of the Albian fauna was used as the basis for synthesizing classical taxonomic works with modern microstructural data and recent DNA analyses in order to propose both a modified taxonomic framework and a working hypothetical phylogenetic tree for 41 scleractinian families occurring in the fossil record.
In contrast to the coral facies of the time period preceding the Albian (Barremian–Aptian) that was marked by coral-reef development (Baron-Szabo 2021, and references therein), the Albian coral faunas are characterized mainly by non-reefal coral associations (e.g., Wells 1932, 1933; Alloiteau 1958, Reyeros de Castillo 1983, Baron-Szabo 1993, Morycowa & Marcopoulou-Diacantoni 2002, Turnšek et al. 2003, Baron-Szabo et al. 2010, Jell et al. 2011, Baron-Szabo 2018a) (Supplemental Appendix 1). For this time period, the most diverse coral-reef assemblages (up to 37 species) occurred in a rather small number of areas such as, e.g., Mexico (Baron-Szabo & González-León 1999, 2003), France (Löser 2013), the U.S.A. (Wells 1932, 1933), Georgia (Caucasus) (Sikharulidze 1979), and Spain (Baron-Szabo & Fernández-Mendiola 1997). In contrast, non-reefal coral assemblages were recorded from locations worldwide, including Greenland (Donovan 1949), the U.S.A. (Wells 1932, 1933), New Zealand (Squires 1958), Madagascar (Alloiteau 1958), Egypt (Aboul Ela et al. 1991), Greece (Morycowa & Marcopoulou-Diacantoni 2002), Austria (Baron-Szabo 2018a), Switzerland (Baron-Szabo 2018a, Baron-Szabo & Furrer, 2018), and others, some of which with a greater taxonomic diversity than the reefal associations (e.g., the fauna of Greece, 48 species, Morycowa & Marcopoulou-Diacantoni 2002, current study) (Supplemental Appendix 2).
According to the model of evolution of scleractinian corals based on microstructural data (Roniewicz & Morycowa 1993), the Albian represents the final stage of Phase 1 of the “Late Mesozoic stage (Hauterivian–Albian).” This stage is characterized by a general decrease of Jurassic relict lines and certain innovations in both hermatypic and ahermatypic corals. With regard to hermatypic scleractinians, changes took place, including 1) the occurrence of both a new type of septal microstructure in faviid-related stems (=minitrabecular portions and compound trabeculae); 2) new colony types, including hydnophoroid and meandroid forms lacking any traces of individual calices; and 3) diversification of thick- and minitrabeculae lines. As for ahermatypic coral faunas, a significant diversification of caryophylliid forms took place, including the development of both extant genera (e.g., Caryophyllia) and new lines of ahermatypic corals [e.g., flabellid types; Stolarski 1991, Roniewicz & Morycowa 1993, Roniewicz & Stolarski 1999, (Figs. 1, 2)].
Types of skeletal elements and microstructure. A, Development of pennulae, typical of families such as Comoseriidae, Cunnolitidae, Latomeandridae, and Synastreidae; irregularly occurring in families such as Acrosmiliidae and Agariciidae; B, types of septal porosity and pennulae typical of the family Comoseriidae; C, types of septal porosity and pennulae typical of the family Latomeandridae; D, developments of septal arrangement and axial ends of septa (terminating in auriculae) typically seen in the families Cladophylliidae and Stylinidae; E, cross section of septum, showing stylinid type of microstructure; trabeculae generally belonging to mini- to medium-size groups; F, cross section of septum, showing cladophylliid type of microstructure; trabeculae in mini- to medium-size ranges (often less than 60 μm); G, septal arrangement in Pourtalès plan (=characteristic of the family Dendrophylliidae) compared to the septal arrangement in non-dendrophylliid groups; H, cross section of septum, showing aplosmiliid type of microstructure; trabeculae in mini- to medium-size ranges; I, cross section of septum, showing thecosmiliid type of microstructure; trabeculae belong to the large-size group (200 μm up to around 1300 μm); J, cross section of septum, showing haplaraeid type of microstructure; trabeculae belong to the medium- to lower large-size groups (up to around 200 μm); K, non-trabecular microstructure corresponding to the kind seen in the Cyathophoridae, consisting of fibers arranged in bundles (1) or scales (2); L, cross view of septum, showing caryophylliid type of microstructure; trabeculae are densely packed, arranged in a mid-septal zig-zag-line; trabeculae mainly in the small- (rarely medium-) size group (generally up 50 μm, rarely up to 100 μm); M, corallite of the heterocoeniid type with horizontal rows of trabeculae forming the corallite wall; N, lateral view of a dermosmiliid septum; trabeculae are arranged in a divergent zig-zag-line; O, cross section of actinastreid-type septa, showing densely packed trabeculae; P, cross section of septum, showing gardineriid type of microstructure; trabeculae are densely packed, arranged in a rather straight mid-septal line; trabeculae mainly range in the small- (rarely medium-) size group (generally up 50 μm, rarely up to 100 μm); Q, cross section of eugyrid-type septa; R, ultrastructure of faviid septum (Favia fragum) in cross-section, showing fibers and calcification centers (1, SEM-photomosaic and 2, sketch of 1). Abbreviations: S1, S2, etc., septa of first cycle/order, second cycle/order, etc.; d.t., divergent trabeculae; l.t., lateral trabeculae; m.t., main trabeculae. Sources of images: A, modified from Gill & Coates 1977, Baron-Szabo 2003; B, C, modified from Morycowa & Roniewicz 1995; D, modified from Gill 1977; E, H, I, J, N, modified from Roniewicz 1996; F, modified from Morycowa & Roniewicz 1990; G, modified from Cairns 2001; K, modified from Roniewicz & Morycowa 1989; L, P, modified from Stolarski 1996; M, O, modified from Morycowa 1971; Q, modified from Morycowa 1997; R, modified from Cuif & Perrin 1999.
Types of skeletal elements and microstructure. A, Development of pennulae, typical of families such as Comoseriidae, Cunnolitidae, Latomeandridae, and Synastreidae; irregularly occurring in families such as Acrosmiliidae and Agariciidae; B, types of septal porosity and pennulae typical of the family Comoseriidae; C, types of septal porosity and pennulae typical of the family Latomeandridae; D, developments of septal arrangement and axial ends of septa (terminating in auriculae) typically seen in the families Cladophylliidae and Stylinidae; E, cross section of septum, showing stylinid type of microstructure; trabeculae generally belonging to mini- to medium-size groups; F, cross section of septum, showing cladophylliid type of microstructure; trabeculae in mini- to medium-size ranges (often less than 60 μm); G, septal arrangement in Pourtalès plan (=characteristic of the family Dendrophylliidae) compared to the septal arrangement in non-dendrophylliid groups; H, cross section of septum, showing aplosmiliid type of microstructure; trabeculae in mini- to medium-size ranges; I, cross section of septum, showing thecosmiliid type of microstructure; trabeculae belong to the large-size group (200 μm up to around 1300 μm); J, cross section of septum, showing haplaraeid type of microstructure; trabeculae belong to the medium- to lower large-size groups (up to around 200 μm); K, non-trabecular microstructure corresponding to the kind seen in the Cyathophoridae, consisting of fibers arranged in bundles (1) or scales (2); L, cross view of septum, showing caryophylliid type of microstructure; trabeculae are densely packed, arranged in a mid-septal zig-zag-line; trabeculae mainly in the small- (rarely medium-) size group (generally up 50 μm, rarely up to 100 μm); M, corallite of the heterocoeniid type with horizontal rows of trabeculae forming the corallite wall; N, lateral view of a dermosmiliid septum; trabeculae are arranged in a divergent zig-zag-line; O, cross section of actinastreid-type septa, showing densely packed trabeculae; P, cross section of septum, showing gardineriid type of microstructure; trabeculae are densely packed, arranged in a rather straight mid-septal line; trabeculae mainly range in the small- (rarely medium-) size group (generally up 50 μm, rarely up to 100 μm); Q, cross section of eugyrid-type septa; R, ultrastructure of faviid septum (Favia fragum) in cross-section, showing fibers and calcification centers (1, SEM-photomosaic and 2, sketch of 1). Abbreviations: S1, S2, etc., septa of first cycle/order, second cycle/order, etc.; d.t., divergent trabeculae; l.t., lateral trabeculae; m.t., main trabeculae. Sources of images: A, modified from Gill & Coates 1977, Baron-Szabo 2003; B, C, modified from Morycowa & Roniewicz 1995; D, modified from Gill 1977; E, H, I, J, N, modified from Roniewicz 1996; F, modified from Morycowa & Roniewicz 1990; G, modified from Cairns 2001; K, modified from Roniewicz & Morycowa 1989; L, P, modified from Stolarski 1996; M, O, modified from Morycowa 1971; Q, modified from Morycowa 1997; R, modified from Cuif & Perrin 1999.
Growth forms of solitary corals and types of corallite integration in colonial corals (modified from Errenst 1990, Baron-Szabo & Furrer 2018). For examples of various morphological types in Albian corals see Figs. 6, 7.
Growth forms of solitary corals and types of corallite integration in colonial corals (modified from Errenst 1990, Baron-Szabo & Furrer 2018). For examples of various morphological types in Albian corals see Figs. 6, 7.
The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive evaluation of Albian scleractinians with regard to both their taxonomic assignment and paleogeographic distribution and to use the information as the basis for synthesizing classical taxonomic works with both modern microstructural data and recent DNA analyses in order to propose both a modified taxonomic framework and a working hypothetical phylogenetic tree for 41 scleractinian families occurring in the fossil record (Fig. 3).
Hypothetical phylogenetic tree of scleractinian corals occurring during the Lower Cretaceous (modified from Roniewicz & Morycowa 1989, 1993, Stolarski 1996, Roniewicz & Stolarski 1999, Baron-Szabo 2006, 2008; Budd et al. 2012, Huang et al. 2014a, b; Morycowa & Roniewicz 1990, 1995, 2016; Kitahara et al. 2016, and new herein). Abbreviations: Alb, Albian; Apt, Aptian; Barr, Barremian; Berr, Berriasian; Ca, Campanian; Cen, Cenomanian; Con, Coniacian; Dan, Danian; Eo, Eocene; Haut, Hauterivian; Maast, Maastrichtian; Mio, Miocene; Oligo, Oligocene; Pal, Paleocene: Q, Quaternary; Sa, Santonian; Ter, Tertiary; Tur, Turonian; Val, Valanginian.
Hypothetical phylogenetic tree of scleractinian corals occurring during the Lower Cretaceous (modified from Roniewicz & Morycowa 1989, 1993, Stolarski 1996, Roniewicz & Stolarski 1999, Baron-Szabo 2006, 2008; Budd et al. 2012, Huang et al. 2014a, b; Morycowa & Roniewicz 1990, 1995, 2016; Kitahara et al. 2016, and new herein). Abbreviations: Alb, Albian; Apt, Aptian; Barr, Barremian; Berr, Berriasian; Ca, Campanian; Cen, Cenomanian; Con, Coniacian; Dan, Danian; Eo, Eocene; Haut, Hauterivian; Maast, Maastrichtian; Mio, Miocene; Oligo, Oligocene; Pal, Paleocene: Q, Quaternary; Sa, Santonian; Ter, Tertiary; Tur, Turonian; Val, Valanginian.
Material and Methods
Material included in the current study was derived from beds having stratigraphic ranges clearly defined as Albian and from works in which descriptions or illustrations of the coral material were provided (see references in Supplemental Appendix 2 and references marked with * in the Literature Cited). Works in which the stratigraphic ranges of the coral-bearing strata are not clearly defined but given as, e.g., Aptian–Albian, Albian–Cenomanian, etc., or in which material was listed but identifications have not been confirmed in subsequent works, are excluded from the current study (e.g., Kossmat 1907 [Albian–Cenomanian of Yemen]), Lowenstam 1942 [upper Albian–lower Cenomanian of Israel], Eguchi 1951 [Aptian–Albian of Japan], Baron-Szabo et al. 2003, Pandey et al. 2007 [Aptian–Albian of Iran].
Material discussed in the current work includes specimens from the following institutions:
MNHN Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
NHMUK The Natural History Museum London, UK
NHMW Naturhistorisches Museum Wien, Österreich (Natural History Museum Vienna, Austria).
NIGP Academia Sinica, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology Nanjing, China.
NM Národni Muzeum, Praha, Czech Republic.
SMF Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt/Main, Germany.
SNSB-BSPG Bayerische Staatssammlung für Paläontologie und historische Geologie, Munich, Germany.
TMM Texas Memorial Museum, Austin, Texas, U.S.A.
Over 470 records of scleractinian corals from 30 regions were evaluated (Figs. 4, 5, Tables 1–3, Supplemental Appendices 1–8) and arranged in a taxonomic framework (Table 4).
Simplified global map indicating the localities where Albian species were found. Shown are the locality numbers corresponding to those in Table 1.
Simplified global map indicating the localities where Albian species were found. Shown are the locality numbers corresponding to those in Table 1.
Simplified Lower Cretaceous paleogeographic map indicating the localities where Albian species were found. Shown are the locality numbers corresponding to those in Table 1 (Paleomap modified from Paleomap project Scotese [2014] at www.scotese.com; last accessed 16 September 2021; Tennant et al. 2017, Baron-Szabo 2021).
Simplified Lower Cretaceous paleogeographic map indicating the localities where Albian species were found. Shown are the locality numbers corresponding to those in Table 1 (Paleomap modified from Paleomap project Scotese [2014] at www.scotese.com; last accessed 16 September 2021; Tennant et al. 2017, Baron-Szabo 2021).
List of Albian localities from which the coral material was collected. Coordinates and paleocoordinates representative of distributional patterns are from Paleobiology Database (paleobiodb.org; see there for more details on individual sites) and (*) are estimated using the information of the Paleomap project Scotese (2014) at www.scotese.com, Vérard et al. 2017, and Tennant et al. 2017.

Taxonomic affinities of the five most species-rich Albian assemblages, including those of the USA (91 species), Mexico (67 species), Greece (60 species), France (48 species), and Spain (29 species), using the Jaccard index (=number of shared species, divided by total number of species in two localities).

Taxonomic affinities of the five most genus-rich Albian assemblages, including those of the USA (51 genera), Mexico (47 genera), Greece (41 genera), France (32 genera), and Spain (25 genera), using the Jaccard index (=number of shared genera, divided by total number of genera in two localities). [number] = number of shared genera.
![Taxonomic affinities of the five most genus-rich Albian assemblages, including those of the USA (51 genera), Mexico (47 genera), Greece (41 genera), France (32 genera), and Spain (25 genera), using the Jaccard index (=number of shared genera, divided by total number of genera in two localities). [number] = number of shared genera.](https://allen.silverchair-cdn.com/allen/content_public/journal/pbsw/134/1/10.2988_0006-324x-134.1.363/3/m_i0006-324x-134-1-363-t03.png?Expires=1742360078&Signature=nX0iqodMFfeK~tW2uyTSlIq5483w4ZImyr1NJt8yU-kIP21hlUgG-qsip~LZ9MxYVEvjUJTtIfhDFuOsGzvV1narvfVaKCf0WDGg-ten1205lzLHrOQ~8M~jOJqKxTug4FYELTNHdGEmEhWL2sAdxgflKwbFRVCAS9J19Ydg1YgdWgn1b7F0~vtQRQ0hLVhsYMWjAu0I-KhA-EPrtUHcp-paWxW4v1Ss2WGEjqWX~nsVDmbnc0WUhVeuE6Kv1GpuTYhojY88ziohmEHBkDUZeaLXFO4OlYenxhHo1WO4oDCa-jqrweneFibw5EFz1vpJlI0vUtWHsHOVpdJMs~JDpA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAIE5G5CRDK6RD3PGA)
Albian coral genera arranged according to family assignment (families are in alphabetical order), types of corallite integration, and references used for information regarding genus concept. Types of corallite integration: b, branching group; cp, cerioid-plocoid group; hmt, (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid group; s, solitary (no corallite integration); * previously (** potentially previously) established microstructural group.

Albian coral genera arranged according to family assignment (families are in alphabetical order), types of corallite integration, and references used for information regarding genus concept. Types of corallite integration: b, branching group; cp, cerioid-plocoid group; hmt, (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid group; s, solitary (no corallite integration); * previously (** potentially previously) established microstructural group.

Albian coral genera arranged according to family assignment (families are in alphabetical order), types of corallite integration, and references used for information regarding genus concept. Types of corallite integration: b, branching group; cp, cerioid-plocoid group; hmt, (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid group; s, solitary (no corallite integration); * previously (** potentially previously) established microstructural group.

Albian coral genera arranged according to family assignment (families are in alphabetical order), types of corallite integration, and references used for information regarding genus concept. Types of corallite integration: b, branching group; cp, cerioid-plocoid group; hmt, (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid group; s, solitary (no corallite integration); * previously (** potentially previously) established microstructural group.

Albian coral genera arranged according to family assignment (families are in alphabetical order), types of corallite integration, and references used for information regarding genus concept. Types of corallite integration: b, branching group; cp, cerioid-plocoid group; hmt, (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid group; s, solitary (no corallite integration); * previously (** potentially previously) established microstructural group.

Albian coral genera arranged according to family assignment (families are in alphabetical order), types of corallite integration, and references used for information regarding genus concept. Types of corallite integration: b, branching group; cp, cerioid-plocoid group; hmt, (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid group; s, solitary (no corallite integration); * previously (** potentially previously) established microstructural group.

Albian coral genera arranged according to family assignment (families are in alphabetical order), types of corallite integration, and references used for information regarding genus concept. Types of corallite integration: b, branching group; cp, cerioid-plocoid group; hmt, (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid group; s, solitary (no corallite integration); * previously (** potentially previously) established microstructural group.

Albian coral genera arranged according to family assignment (families are in alphabetical order), types of corallite integration, and references used for information regarding genus concept. Types of corallite integration: b, branching group; cp, cerioid-plocoid group; hmt, (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid group; s, solitary (no corallite integration); * previously (** potentially previously) established microstructural group.

Albian coral genera arranged according to family assignment (families are in alphabetical order), types of corallite integration, and references used for information regarding genus concept. Types of corallite integration: b, branching group; cp, cerioid-plocoid group; hmt, (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid group; s, solitary (no corallite integration); * previously (** potentially previously) established microstructural group.

Albian coral genera arranged according to family assignment (families are in alphabetical order), types of corallite integration, and references used for information regarding genus concept. Types of corallite integration: b, branching group; cp, cerioid-plocoid group; hmt, (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid group; s, solitary (no corallite integration); * previously (** potentially previously) established microstructural group.

Albian coral genera arranged according to family assignment (families are in alphabetical order), types of corallite integration, and references used for information regarding genus concept. Types of corallite integration: b, branching group; cp, cerioid-plocoid group; hmt, (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid group; s, solitary (no corallite integration); * previously (** potentially previously) established microstructural group.

A, F, G, Trigerastraea sikharulidzeae, new species, holotype SMF 75536, lower Albian of France; A, longitudinal view of cerioid to cerio-submeandroid colony, slightly oblique, thin section; scale bar = 5 mm; F, close-up of G; scale bar = 3.5 mm; G, calicular view of colony, thin section; scale bar = 14 mm; B, C, Bathycyathus androiavensis (Alloiteau, 1936), MNHN.F.M05216, lectotype designated herein (images from website “colhelper.mnhn.fr” Permission to use these images granted by Sylvain Charbonnier, Natural History Museum, Paris, August, 2020); Albian of Madagascar; B, calicular view of solitary corallum; scale bar = 5 mm; C, longitudinal view of turbinate corallum; scale bar = 5 mm; D, E, Podoseris mammiliformisDuncan, 1869, middle to upper Albian of England (Norfolk); D, NHMUK R.50454 (18233), calicular view of solitary (cupolate) corallum; scale bar = 4 mm; E, NHMUK R.50454 (18235), calicular view of solitary (subtympanoid) corallum; scale bar = 3 mm.
A, F, G, Trigerastraea sikharulidzeae, new species, holotype SMF 75536, lower Albian of France; A, longitudinal view of cerioid to cerio-submeandroid colony, slightly oblique, thin section; scale bar = 5 mm; F, close-up of G; scale bar = 3.5 mm; G, calicular view of colony, thin section; scale bar = 14 mm; B, C, Bathycyathus androiavensis (Alloiteau, 1936), MNHN.F.M05216, lectotype designated herein (images from website “colhelper.mnhn.fr” Permission to use these images granted by Sylvain Charbonnier, Natural History Museum, Paris, August, 2020); Albian of Madagascar; B, calicular view of solitary corallum; scale bar = 5 mm; C, longitudinal view of turbinate corallum; scale bar = 5 mm; D, E, Podoseris mammiliformisDuncan, 1869, middle to upper Albian of England (Norfolk); D, NHMUK R.50454 (18233), calicular view of solitary (cupolate) corallum; scale bar = 4 mm; E, NHMUK R.50454 (18235), calicular view of solitary (subtympanoid) corallum; scale bar = 3 mm.
A, Truncoconus inclinatus Turnšek inTurnšek & Mihajlović, 1981, SMF 75573, lower Albian of France, calicular view of solitary corallum, thin section; scale bar = 6 mm; B, G, Antiguastrea jacobiAlloiteau, 1948, MNHN.F.R.10907, holotype (images from website “colhelper.mnhn.fr” Permission to use these images granted by Sylvain Charbonnier, Natural History Museum, Paris, August, 2020), Albian of France; B, calicular view of plocoid colony; scale bar = 25.5 mm; G, close-up of Fig. B; scale bar = 5.5 mm; C, D, Ahrdorffia vaughani (Wells, 1932), SMF 75518, lower Albian of France; C, calicular view of thamnasterioid colony, thin section; scale bar = 5 mm; D, close-up Fig. C; scale bar = 2 mm; E, H, Cladophyllia stewartaeWells, 1944, VNS-P.27024, first time report of new material from the lower Albian of Austria (Garschella Formation at Sattelalpe, east of Ebniterach), images courtesy of Michael Ricker, Senckenberg, Frankfurt, Germany; E, calicular view of branching (dendroid to subphaceloid) colony, thin section; scale bar = 5.5 mm; H, close-up of Fig. E; scale bar = 2.5 mm; F, Diplogyra lamellosa eguchiiMorycowa, 1971, SMF 75573, lower Albian of France, calicular view of meandroid colony, thin section; scale bar = 4 mm; I, Enallhelia cf. tubulosaBecker, 1875, VNS-P.25401, lower Albian of Austria, lateral view of dendroid (-sympodial) colony, preserved either as “steinkern” or as mould; scale bar = 8 mm.
A, Truncoconus inclinatus Turnšek inTurnšek & Mihajlović, 1981, SMF 75573, lower Albian of France, calicular view of solitary corallum, thin section; scale bar = 6 mm; B, G, Antiguastrea jacobiAlloiteau, 1948, MNHN.F.R.10907, holotype (images from website “colhelper.mnhn.fr” Permission to use these images granted by Sylvain Charbonnier, Natural History Museum, Paris, August, 2020), Albian of France; B, calicular view of plocoid colony; scale bar = 25.5 mm; G, close-up of Fig. B; scale bar = 5.5 mm; C, D, Ahrdorffia vaughani (Wells, 1932), SMF 75518, lower Albian of France; C, calicular view of thamnasterioid colony, thin section; scale bar = 5 mm; D, close-up Fig. C; scale bar = 2 mm; E, H, Cladophyllia stewartaeWells, 1944, VNS-P.27024, first time report of new material from the lower Albian of Austria (Garschella Formation at Sattelalpe, east of Ebniterach), images courtesy of Michael Ricker, Senckenberg, Frankfurt, Germany; E, calicular view of branching (dendroid to subphaceloid) colony, thin section; scale bar = 5.5 mm; H, close-up of Fig. E; scale bar = 2.5 mm; F, Diplogyra lamellosa eguchiiMorycowa, 1971, SMF 75573, lower Albian of France, calicular view of meandroid colony, thin section; scale bar = 4 mm; I, Enallhelia cf. tubulosaBecker, 1875, VNS-P.25401, lower Albian of Austria, lateral view of dendroid (-sympodial) colony, preserved either as “steinkern” or as mould; scale bar = 8 mm.
Because of the fact that in some areas coral research has been carried out for over 1½ centuries (e.g., England: Milne Edward & Haime 1848a, b; Duncan 1869, 1870, 1879, 1884, 1889; Tomes 1885, Lang 1909, Casey 1961, Baron-Szabo 2013, Baron-Szabo et al. 2010; U.S.A.: Roemer 1849, 1888, Wells 1932, 1933, 1947, 1973; Jacka & Brand 1977, Hartshorne 1989, Scott 1997, Kennedy et al. 1998, Turnšek et al. 2003, Scott et al. 2007), whereas in other regions sampling effort was very low to nearly non-existent (e.g., Greenland, Poland, South Africa; Supplemental Appendix 2), no conclusions can be reached regarding species diversity between sites. Furthermore, stratigraphic resolution differs significantly between individual locations. More precise ages (lower, middle, upper Albian) are available for some coral occurrences (e.g., Austria, England, France, Mexico, U.S.A.), whereas for other regions stratigraphic resolution has been less precise (e.g., Georgia [Caucasus], Greece, Madagascar). In order to provide general information with regard to similarities between coral faunas and distributional pattern during the Albian, the genus distribution during the Albian is given (Supplemental Appendix 3), paleogeographic distribution of scleractinian coral species occurring in more than one area during the Albian is listed (Supplemental Appendix 4), and the five most diverse coral assemblages recorded for the Albian are compared, including the faunas from the U.S.A. (51 genera, 91 species), Mexico (47 genera, 67 species), Greece (41 genera, 60 species), France (32 genera, 48 species), and Spain (25 genera, 29 species) (Tables 2, 3). In addition, in order to provide an idea about possible trends with regard to distributional patterns and coral diversity during various stages of the Albian, coral assemblages derived from more precisely dated collecting sites are provided, including 118 records from the lower Albian, 86 records from the middle Albian, and 82 records from the upper Albian (Supplemental Appendices 5–7).
General Attributes of the Scleractinian Corals of the Albian Taxonomic Diversity and Morphology
A total of 337 taxa belonging to 147 genera and 42 families are recognized from 30 Albian regions worldwide (280 species determined, 57 taxa kept in open nomenclature). The vast majority of the taxa belong to colonial forms (108 genera = 73.5%; 243 species = 72%) (Table 4, Supplemental Appendices 2, 8).
Most of the Albian taxa belong to the cerioid-plocoid group (54 genera = 36.7%; 130 species = 38.5%), followed by solitary forms (39 genera = 26.5%; 94 species = 28%), corals having (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid corallite integration (35 genera = 23.8%; 74 species = 22%), and corals belonging to the branching group (19 genera = 13%; 39 species = 11.5%) (Supplemental Appendix 8).
With regard to corallite size, 324 taxa were included in the evaluation (13 species were left out due to the lack of sufficient information) (Supplemental Appendix 2). In the Albian corals, corallite diameters range from less than 1 mm (e.g., Heterocoenia minuta) to over 60 mm (Aulastraeopora harrisi) (Supplemental Appendix 2) and fall into three major corallite-size groups: small (up to 2.5 mm), medium (>2.5–9.5 mm), and large (>9.5 mm). The Albian corals, however, are distinctly dominated by forms with medium-size corallites (173 species = 53.4%), followed by forms having large-size corallites (92 species = 28.4%) and small-corallite corals (59 species = 18.2%). According to Coates & Oliver (1973), the occurrence of scleractinians with highly integrated corallites (i.e., hydnophoroid, thamnasterioid, meandroid types) underscores the hermatypic character of coral assemblages. Recent zooxanthellate coral faunas are dominated by high-integrated species belonging mainly to two groups of corallite sizes: corals having corallite diameters of 1–5 mm (most common) and 5–10 mm, whereas corals characterized by larger corallites and low corallite integration are less common (Coates & Jackson 1987). With regard to both corallite size and type of integration, the Albian fauna shows little correspondence to Recent zooxanthellate assemblages: Albian corals belonging to species having little or no type of corallite integration (cerioid-plocoid [130 species] and solitary [94 species] categories) form the most dominant group.
Based on the model of evolution of scleractinian corals using microstructural data (Roniewicz & Morycowa 1993), the coral faunas of the Albian are dominated by corals of “modern” microstructural groups (76 genera = 51.7%; 169 species = 50.1%) (Table 4, Supplemental Appendix 2). Compared to the situation of the lowermost Cretaceous (Berriasian), which showed that 91% of the species and 83% of the genera belonged to previously established microstructural groups (Baron-Szabo 2018b), the Lower Cretaceous ends with “modern” groups having become dominant.
Paleogeographic Distribution
The most extensive records of Albian corals are from tropical/subtropical and arid areas, including the U.S.A. (51 genera, 91 species), Mexico (47 genera, 67 species), Greece (41 genera, 60 species), France (32 genera, 48 species), and Spain (25 genera, 29 species) (Figs. 4, 5, Tables 2, 3, Supplemental Appendix 2).
With regard to the genus-level distribution, 22 genera (out of 147 genera) were found in four or more locations (Supplemental Appendix 3). The most and widespread of these genera during the Albian are the group of solitary corals, including Aulastraeopora, Bathycyathus, Caryophyllia, Epistreptophyllum, Podoseris, Smilotrochus, Stelloria, and Trochocyathus (8 genera out of 22 = 36.4%), followed by the cerioid-plocoid forms Actinastrea, Columnocoenia, Cyathophora, Heterocoenia, Ovalastrea, Stylina, and Trigerastraea (7 genera out of 22 = 31.8%), the (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid group, consisting of Comoseris, Diplogyra, Eugyra, and Myriophyllia (4 genera out of 22 = 18.2%), and the branching corals Calamophylliopsis, Cladophyllia, and Thecosmilia (3 genera out of 22 = 13.6%) (Supplemental Appendix 3. Whereas some of these genera have been reported from locations belonging to a rather geographically confined area (e.g., the solitary coral Podoseris, reported from Austria, England, Spain, Switzerland), other forms were recorded from areas across the globe (e.g., the solitary genus Caryophyllia, recorded from Germany, Greenland, South Africa, U.S.A.; the colonial [branching] form Calamophylliopsis, found in Austria, Georgia [Caucasus], South Africa, Spain), showing that the number of Albian records may not be indicative of a taxon's cosmopolitan distribution. Based on the records evaluated in the current work it can be said, as a trend, that a little more than 40% of the genera (61 genera = 41.5%) were cosmopolitan/subcosmopolitan during the Albian, whereas a little more than half (74 genera = 50.3%) were recorded from only one location (Supplemental Appendix 3).
With regard to the genus-level, the Albian faunas show affinities ranging between 12.3–20.5%. Compared to the level of correspondence of coral assemblages of the Barremian–Aptian time period (up to 55% between faunas of European localities and up to 47% between faunas of Europe and Central America [Baron-Szabo 2021]), the Albian faunas show rather low similarities. It should be noted, however, that the greatest correspondence (15.2–20.5%) also includes faunas that are largely to distinctly dominated by non-reefal assemblages (Greece, U.S.A.; Table 1). This points to the hypothesis that, in contrast to, e.g., the Barremian–Aptian time period, reefal developments were less crucial for coral recruitment during the Albian.
With regard to species distribution, the vast majority of the taxa (279 taxa = 82.8%) have been recorded from only one geographic region during the Albian. Conversely, the species that have been found in more than one locality (59 species = 17.5%) are distinctly dominated by cosmopolitan/subcosmopolitan taxa. Over three quarters of the species belong to this group (47 species out of 59 = 80%) (Supplemental Appendix 4), most of which were found in the most diverse faunas (30 species = 64%), nearly all of them are colonial (28 of 30 = 93.3%).
The five most diverse coral assemblages recorded for the Albian are the faunas of the U.S.A. (51 genera, 91 species), Mexico (47 genera, 67 species), Greece (41 genera, 60 species), France (32 genera, 48 species), and Spain (25 genera, 29 species) (Tables 2, 3, Supplemental Appendix 3). With regard to the species-level, they show affinities ranging between 1.9–9.1%. Compared to the level of correspondence of coral assemblages of the Barremian–Aptian time period (over 23% between faunas of European localities and up to 14% between faunas of Europe and Central America [Baron-Szabo 2021]), the Albian faunas show low to very low similarities.
Lower Albian (112.0–109.0 Ma)
From the lower Albian, 118 records of coral taxa were included, comprising 109 species belonging to 63 genera (Supplemental Appendix 5). The majority of the taxa belong to colonial forms (47 genera = 74.6%; 82 species = 75.2%). The most diverse assemblages were described from France (41 species), Mexico (31 species), and the U.S.A. (19 species). During the lower Albian, nine species were reported from more than one locality, including the forms Ahrdorffia vaughani and Trigerastraea whitneyi (both from France and U.S.A.), Aulastraeopora harrisi, Cyathophora miyakoensis, Diplogyra casanovai, Meandrophyllia cf. lotharinga, and Polyastropsis arnaudi (all from France and Mexico), Podoseris mammiliformis (from Austria and Spain), and Trochocyathus antsiranensis (from Austria and Germany).
Middle Albian (109.0–105.3 Ma)
From the middle Albian, 86 records of coral taxa were included, identifying 82 species belonging to 50 genera (Supplemental Appendix 6). The vast majority of the taxa belong to colonial forms (39 genera = 78%; 61 species = 74.4%). The most diverse assemblages were described from the U.S.A. (60 species) and Mexico (13 species). During the middle Albian, only four species were reported from more than one locality, including the cerioid-plocoid species Cyathophora haysensis, Cyathophora miyakoensis (both from Mexico and U.S.A.), the cerioid-plocoid form Cyathophora pulchella (from Greece and the U.S.A.), and the solitary Trochocyathus conulus (from Poland and U.S.A.).
Upper Albian (105.3–99.7 Ma)
From the upper Albian, 82 records of coral taxa were included, identifying 77 species belonging to 54 genera (Supplemental Appendix 7). The majority of the taxa belong to colonial forms (36 genera = 66.7%; 44 species = 57.1%). However, making up more than 40% of the faunas (42.9%), solitary forms have the highest number of taxa recorded for the Albian. The most diverse assemblages were described from the U.S.A. (20 species) and Mexico (19 species). During the upper Albian, only four species were reported from more than one locality, including Bathycyathus sowerbyi (from England, Egypt, and U.S.A.), Haldonia vicaryi (from England and Spain), Podoseris mammiliformis (from England and Switzerland), and Trigerastraea haldonensis (from Egypt and England).
Summary of Diversity and Paleogeography
A total of 337 taxa belonging to 147 genera and 42 families are recognized from 30 Albian regions in Africa, the Americas, the Arctic, Asia, Australasia, and Europe (280 species determined; 57 taxa kept in open nomenclature). Most of the Albian taxa belong to the cerioid-plocoid group (54 genera = 36.7%; 130 species = 38.5%), followed by solitary forms (39 genera = 26.5%; 94 species = 28%), corals having (hydno-) meandroid-thamnasterioid corallite integration (35 genera = 23.8%; 74 species = 22%), and corals belonging to the branching group (19 genera = 13%; 39 species = 11.5%).
In the Albian corals, corallite diameters range from less than 1 mm (e.g., Heterocoenia minuta) to over 60 mm (e.g., Aulastraeopora harrisi) and fall into three major corallite-size groups: small (up to 2.5 mm), medium (>2.5–9.5 mm), and large (>9.5 mm). The Albian corals are, however, distinctly dominated by forms with medium-size corallites (173 species = 53.4%), followed by forms having large-size corallites (92 species = 28.4%) and small-corallite corals (59 species = 18.2%). With regard to both corallite size and type of integration, the Albian fauna shows little correspondence to Recent zooxanthellate assemblages. Albian corals belonging to species having little or no type of corallite integration (cerioid-plocoid and solitary categories) form the most dominant groups.
The most widespread genera (occurrences in four or more localities during the Albian) are Actinastrea, Aulastraeopora, Bathycyathus, Calamophylliopsis, Caryophyllia, Cladophyllia, Columnocoenia, Comoseris, Cyathophora, Diplogyra, Epistreptophyllum, Eugyra, Heterocoenia, Myriophyllia, Ovalastrea, Podoseris, Smilotrochus, Stelloria, Stylina, Thecosmilia, Trigerastraea, and Trochocyathus.
The five most diverse coral assemblages recorded for the Albian are from tropical/subtropical and arid areas, including the faunas of the U.S.A. (51 genera, 91 species), Mexico (47 genera, 67 species), Greece (41 genera, 60 species), France (32 genera, 48 species), and Spain (25 genera, 29 species). With regard to the species-level, the Albian assemblages show affinities ranging between 1.9–9.1%, which represents low to very low similarities when compared to the level of correspondence of coral assemblages of the Barremian–Aptian time period (over 23%).
As a trend, it can be said that somewhat more than 40% of the genera (61 genera = 41.5%) were cosmopolitan/subcosmopolitan during the Albian, whereas a little more than half (74 genera = 50.3%) were recorded from only one location. Although this suggests a possible high level of endemism, at this point, no further conclusion can be drawn because of the inconsistent sampling effort at the various locations. During the lower and middle Albian, the vast majority of taxa belonged to colonial forms (both 74%). A shift took place during the upper Albian, significantly increasing the number of solitary species to over 40% of the Albian fauna (42.9%).
With regard to the genus-level, the Albian faunas show affinities ranging between 12.3–20.5%, which is in great contrast to the level of correspondence of coral assemblages of the Barremian–Aptian time period (up to 55% between faunas of European localities and up to 47% between faunas of Europe and Central America [Baron-Szabo 2021]). However, because the greatest correspondence (15.2–20.5%) also includes faunas that are largely to distinctly dominated by non-reefal assemblages (Greece, U.S.A.), it can be hypothesized that, in contrast to time periods preceding the Albian (such as the Barremian–Aptian), reefal developments were less crucial for coral recruitment during the Albian. Compared to the situation of the lowermost Cretaceous (Berriasian), which showed that 91% of the species and 83% of the genera belonged to previously established microstructural groups (Baron-Szabo 2018b), the Lower Cretaceous ends with “modern” groups having become dominant (76 genera = 51.7%; 169 species = 50.1%).
Taxonomic Framework
Scleractinian corals are identified by examining their macroscopical characters (genus- and species-levels; also used for family-level for some groups) and microscopical characters (family-level; also used for genus-level for some groups) (Figs. 2, 3). Macroscopical features include general types of growth forms (e.g., colonial, solitary, type of corallite integration). Microscopical characters refer to structures that form the skeletal elements of the coral.
The earliest taxonomic works on scleractinian corals were based on the study of macroscopical features (e.g., Linnaeus 1758, d'Orbigny 1849, 1850; Milne Edwards & Haime 1848a, b, c, 1850, 1851a, b, 1857; de Fromentel 1856, 1857, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1867, 1870, 1873, 1877, 1886, 1887; Duncan 1884). During the 20th century, coral taxonomy underwent profound changes by increasingly using microstructural features (trabeculae and non-trabecular septal spines) as the basis for separating taxa mainly at the family-level (e.g., Alloiteau 1952, 1957; Gill 1967, Gill & Lafuste 1987, Morycowa & Roniewicz 1990, 1995; Kołodziej 1995) (Fig. 1). Roniewicz & Morycowa (1989, 1993) distinguished two main microstructural types (simple and compound trabeculae) that occur in three different size groups: mini-trabeculae (up to 50 μm), medium-size trabeculae (50–100 μm), and large-size trabeculae (>100 μm). Over time the importance of the various characters has further changed based on higher resolution of microstructural features (e.g., Cuif 1977, M. Beauvais 1982, Morycowa & Roniewicz 1990, 1995, 2016; Stolarski 1996, Roniewicz & Stolarski 1999, Stolarski & Russo 2002, Kołodziej 2003, Budd & Stolarski 2009, 2011; Huang et al. 2011, 2014a, b; Budd et al. 2012, Arrigoni et al. 2014, Janiszewska et al. 2015), identification of ontogenetic development (e.g., Kołodziej 1995, 2003; Stolarski 1995, 1996; Baron-Szabo 2003, 2008; Budd & Stolarski 2011, Janiszewska et al. 2013), and DNA analyses of coral tissue (e.g., Romano & Palumbi 1996, Fukami et al. 2008, Kitahara et al. 2010, Huang et al. 2011, 2014a, b; Budd et al. 2012, Arrigoni et al. 2014, Seiblitz et al. 2020). These different types of studies resulted in new taxonomic models, especially for fossil groups for taxa at both genus- and family-levels (e.g., M. Beauvais 1982, Eliášová 1990, Morycowa & Roniewicz 1990, 1995, 2016; Cairns 2001, Baron-Szabo 2014, 2017, 2018b, c, d, 2021; Baron-Szabo & Cairns 2019).
The taxonomic framework followed here is based on a synthesis of the modern studies mentioned above with the classical works by Milne Edwards & Haime (1857), de Fromentel (1861), Duncan (1884), Koby (1887), Ogilvie (1897), Oppenheim (1930), Vaughan & Wells (1943), Alloiteau (1952, 1957), Wells (1956), and additional references as listed in Table 4 and Supplemental Appendix 2 and is illustrated by the hypothetical phylogenetic tree shown in Figure 3. For information on excluded taxonomic models see Baron-Szabo (2021, p. 29–30, 166) and Supplemental Appendix 2.
Systematics Family Latomeandridae Alloiteau, 1952 Genus TrigerastraeaAlloiteau, 1952
Type species.—
Isastrea trigeride Fromentel, 1887, Cenomanian of France (Le Mans, Sarthe) (see Alloiteau 1952).
Diagnosis.—
Colonial, massive, cerioid, cerio-plocoid, and meandroid. Budding predominantly intracalicular. Calices monocentric or arranged in discontinuous series, separated by tectiform to tholiform collines. Ambulacra present or absent. Costosepta generally compact, confluent to nonconfluent. Septal flanks have fine dentations, flattened and rounded granules, and small pennulae. Columella spongy-papillose or made of irregular segments. Synapticulae numerous. Intertrabecular distance ranging between 120–300 μm. Wall parasynapticulothecal, incomplete or absent. Septothecal thickenings present or absent. Endothecal dissepiments abundant.
Trigerastraea sikharulidzeae, new species Fig. 3A, F, G
Thalamocaeniopsis ouenzensisAlloiteau, 1953, sensu Löser, v2013:26, Fig. 9d–f.
Holotype.—
SMF 75536, designated herein.
Type locality.—
Padern, Aude, France.
Type stratum.—
Marne à Trigonies, lower Albian.
Etymology.—
In honor of the coral specialist Gulnara Sikharulidze.
Material examined.—
The French material SMF 75536 (holotype).
Diagnosis.—
Trigerastraea having corallite diameters (monocentric) of 3–4 mm, distance of corallite centers of 3.5–7 mm, in areas of intense budding less than 3 mm; septa in monocentric corallites of up to around 48, and a septal density of 7–10 septa in 2 mm.
Description.—
Cerioid to cerio-meandroid colony. Corallites are polygonal in outline or arranged in short (up to 5 corallites) meandroid series, separated by tholiform to mainly tectiform collines or ambulacra. Septal linkages occur throughout the colony. Septa nearly equal in thickness, often compact; subcompact to fenestrate in places.
Comparison.—
The new species differs from the species Trigerastraea collignoni, T. gourdani, and T. haldonensis by its smaller range of corallite diameters; T. picteti has smaller corallites, and T. whitneyi has only half the number of septa (also see Supplemental Appendix 2).
Family Heterocoeniidae Oppenheim, 1930 Genus Apoplacophyllia Morycowa, inMorycowa & Marcopoulou-Diacantoni, 2002
Type species.—
Apoplacophyllia hackemesseri Morycowa, inMorycowa & Marcopoulou-Diacantoni, 2002, Albian of Greece (Agrostylia, Parnassos region).
Diagnosis.—
Colonial, phaceloid-dendroid. Corallites circular to irregularly shaped in outline. Budding intracalicular-peripheral. Septa compact, free. Lonsdaleoid septa present, sparse. Columella absent. Endothecal dissepiments vesicular in peripheral area of corallite, subtabular in central part of corallite. Microstructure neorhipidicanth with thick-sized corallite centers arranged in series in septa. Parathecal inner wall (pseudo-wall) present. Wall rhipidothecal, thin.
Apoplacophyllia asiatica, new species
Aulastraeopora deangelisiPrever, 1909, sensu Liao & Xia, 1994:75, Pl. 58, 75, Pl. LVIII, Figs. 1, 2.
Holotype.—
NIGP 56115/16, designated here.
Type locality.—
Xainza county, Xungmai district, Mayao village, Gangcaiyoula, Tibet.
Type stratum.—
Langshan Formation, Albian.
Etymology.—
Refers to the greater location from which the material was collected (East Asia [Tibet]).
Material examined.—
The Tibetan material NIGP 56115/16 (holotype), as documented in Liao & Xia (1994).
Diagnosis.—
Apoplacophyllia having 12+s septa, in corallites having diameters ranging between 6.5–11 mm.
Description.—
Phaceloid colony. Corallite branches are long and straight; corallites are circular in outline. Septa of first two cycles often nearly equal in thickness and length. Thickness of septa sometimes over 1 mm. S3 present in some corallites, thin.
Comparison.—
The new species differs from the only other known species of Apoplacophyllia (=A. hackemesseri Morycowa, inMorycowa & Marcopoulou-Diacantoni, 2002) in having smaller dimensions of skeletal elements (in A. hackemesseri, the corallite diameter is 11–18 mm and the number of septa is 42–48).
Albian Taxa of Uncertain Position/not Scleractinian
Euhelia expansaKoby, 1896: systematic position unclear. The genus Euhelia has been considered as a junior synonym of Enallhelia by many authors (pers. comm. Lathuilière 2017), but the lack of a styliform columella excludes the material from Enallhelia/Euhelia. Due to its poor preservation, the material is unrecognizable.
In some of the material described from the Albian of Mexico as the cerioid species Preverastraea comalensis (Wells, 1932) (Löser 2007, p. 8, Pl. 1, Fig. 3) neither type of corallite integration nor its presence at all (it could be solitary) is identifiable. Therefore, it is excluded from the evaluation in the current work.
The genus CalostylopsisAlloiteau, 1958, is not a scleractinian; the holotype of the type species (=C. sakalavensis; MNHN.F.M05021) belongs to the spongiomorpha (pers. comm. Baba Senowbari-Daryan 2004; Baron-Szabo & Cairns 2019).
The material described from the upper Albian of England as the solitary form Stelloria incrustans by Duncan (1879) might belong to a colonial, meandroid taxon such as Eugyra.
The material described by Duncan (1879) from the upper Albian of England as Thamnastraea ramsayi and Actinacis insignis might belong to the latomeandrids or haplaraeids.
The material described by Duncan (1879) from the upper Albian of England as Actinacis stellulata might belong to the negoporids.
The material described from the upper Albian of India as Placastrea elegans by Stoliczka (1873) needs further investigation in order to clarify its relationship to genera such as Complexastrea and Diplocoenia.
Acknowledgments
My thanks and gratitude go to Dennis Opresko (Knoxville, Tennessee) for his valuable suggestions on the manuscript, and, together with both Steve Cairns (Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, U.S.A.) and Bernard Lathuilière (Nancy, France), for many discussions on coral taxonomy. I am especially grateful to Ann Budd (University of Iowa, U.S.A.) and one anonymous reviewer for providing invaluable comments on the manuscript.
Type material and additional study material was made accessible to me by Walter Etter (Naturhistorisches Museum Basel, Switzerland); Georg Friebe (“Inatura”, Dornbirn, Austria); Heinz Furrer (University of Zurich, Switzerland); Peter Kürsteiner (Naturmuseum St. Gallen, Switzerland); Andreas Kroh, Alexander Lukeneder, Oleg Mandic, and Thomas Nichterl (all Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria); Hans Egger (Geologische Bundesanstalt, Wien; GBA, Vienna, Austria); Sylvain Charbonnier and Christine Perrin (both Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris, France); Helena Eliášová (Prague, Czech Republic); Elžbieta Morycowa (University of Krakow, Poland); Ewa Roniewicz (Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland); Winfried Werner and Martin Nose (both Bayerische Staatssammlung, Munich, Germany); Jill Darrell (The Natural History Museum, London, UK); Dieter Korn (Naturhistorisches Museum Berlin, Germany). I would like to recognize with deep appreciation Georg Friebe (“Inatura”, Dornbirn, Austria) as well as Antoine Pictet (University of Lausanne) for their unlimited help in providing updates of locality and stratigraphy data.
As a Research Associate of the Smithsonian Institution (SI) Washington, DC, U.S.A., and an Honorary Researcher at the Research Institute Senckenberg, Frankfurt, Germany, the author would like to express her deep appreciation for the continuing support from these institutions. I am especially grateful for the financial support by both the “Inatura”, Dornbirn, Austria, and the Encyclopedia of Life (EOL).