Skip to Main Content
Skip Nav Destination

Cane toads Bufo marinus have been in Australia since 1935. Originally hailed as the potential savior of the ailing Queensland sugar cane industry, toads are now viewed as a nuisance, a scourge and a threat to Australian wildlife. In this paper, I will track the history of cane toads in Australia and investigate the changing perceptions that have ensued. Cane toads frequently make headlines when they venture into new areas, sparking a new wave of public animosity and outrage. Questions addressed: Are these responses justified or is Bufo marinus merely a highly recognizable target for public anger? Will the recent detection of a second species of toad in Australia, the Asian Black-spined toad B. melanostictus, be greeted with the same response or will it be accepted as a new arrival?

Adams, N.G. 1967 Bufo marinus eaten by Rattus rattus. North Queensland Naturalist 34:5.
Akizawa,T., Mukai, T., Matsukawa, M., Yoshioka., M, Morris, J.F. and Butler, V.P. 1994. Structure of novel bufadienolides in the eggs of a toad, Bufo marinus. Chemical Pharmacology Bulletin 42:754-756.
Alcala, A.C. 1957. Phillipine notes on the ecology of the giant marine toad. Silliman Journal 4:90-96.
Alexander, T.R. 1965. Observations of the feeding behaviour of Bufo marinus (Linne). Herpetologica 20(4): 255-259.
Alford, R.A. and Wilbur, H.M. 1985. Priority effects in experimental pond communities: competition between Bufo and Rana. Ecology 66:1097-1105.
Alford, R.A., Cohen, M.P., Crossland, M.R., Hearnden, M.N. and Schwarzkopf, L. 1995. Population biology of Bufo marinus in Northern Australia. Pp. 173-181 in Wetland Research in the Wet-Dry Tropics of Australia edited by C.M. Finlayson, Supervising Scientist Report No. 101, Office of the Supervising Scientist, Canberra.
Allen, E.R. and Neill, W.T. 1956. Effects of marine toad toxins on man. Herpetologica 12(2): 150-151.
Altman, J., Griffiths, T. and Whitehead, P. 2003. Invasion of the rubbish frog. Australian Nature 2003: 44-51.
Bailey, P. 1976. Food of the marine toad, Bufo marinus, and six species of skink in a cacao plantation in New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Australian Wildlife Research 3:185-188.
Banks, B. and Beebee, T.J.C. 1987. Spawn predation and larval growth inhibition as mechanisms for niche separation in amphibians. Oecologica 72:569-573.
Barton, K.E. 1977. Behavioural thermoregulation in the toad Bufo marinus in a temperature gradient. Bulletin of the New Jersey Academy of Science 22: 48-50.
Beiswenger, R.E. 1978. Response of Bufo tadpoles (Amphibia: Anura: Bufonidae) to laboratory gradients of temperature. Journal of Herpetology 12:499-504.
Bell, A.F. 1940. The giant toad in Queensland Australia. Agricultural Journal ( Fiji) 11(2): 55.
Bently, P.J. and Main, A.R. 1972. Zonal differences in permeability of the skin of some anuran amphibians. American Journal of Physiology 223:361-363.
Bettinger, H.F. and O'Loughlin, I. 1950. The use of the male toad, Bufo marinus, for pregnancy tests. Medical Journal of Australia July 8 1950: 40-42.
Boice, R and Boice, C. 1971. Interspecific competition in captive Bufo americanus toads. Journal of Biological Psychology 12: 32-36.
Brattstrom. B.H. 1962. Homing in the giant toad, Bufo marinus. Herpetologica 18: 176-180.
Breeden, K. 1963. Cane Toad. Wildlife Australia 1:31.
Burnett, S. 1997. Colonizing cane toads cause population declines in native predators: reliable anecdotal information and management implications. Pacific Conservation Biology 3:65-72.
Carpenter, C.C. and Gillingham, J.C. 1987. Water hole fidelity in the marine toad, Bufo marinus. Journal of Herpetology 21:158-161.
Cassels, M. (1970). Another predator of the Cane Toad. North Queensland Naturalist 37(151): 6.
Catling, P.C., Hertog, A., Burt, R.J., Wombey, J.C. and Forrester, R.I. 1999. The short-term effect of cane toads ( Bufo marinus) on native fauna in the Gulf Country of the Northern Territory. Wildlife Research 26:161-185.
Clayton, D., and Silke, A. 2003 Cane Toad. What happened to Baz? Independent Film. WWW.cane-toad.com.
Cohen. M.P. and Alford, R.A. 1996. Factors affecting diurnal shelter site use by the cane toad, Bufo marinus. Herpetologica 52: 172-181.
Covacevich, J. 1974. An unusual aggregation of snakes following major flooding in the Ipswich-Brisbane area, south-eastern Queensland. Herpetofauna 7:21-24.
Covacevich, J and Archer, M. 1975. The distribution of the Cane Toad, Bufo marinus, in Australia and its effects on indigenous vertebrates. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 17(2): 305-310.
Crossland, M.R. 1997 Impact of eggs, hatchlings and tadpoles of the introduced cane toad Bufo marinus (Anura: Bufonidae) on native aquatic fauna in northern Queensland. Unpublished PhD thesis, James Cook University of Northern Queensland, Townsville.
Crossland, M.R. 1998. Predation by tadpoles on toxic toad eggs: the effect of tadpole size on predation success and tadpole survival. Journal of Herpetology 32:443-446.
Crossland, M.R. and Alford, R.A. 1998. Evaluation of the toxicity of eggs, hatchlings and tadpoles of the introduced toad Bufo marinus (Anura: Bufonidae) on native Australian aquatic predators. Australian Journal of Ecology 23:129-137.
Crossland, M.R. and Azevedo-Ramos, C. 1999. Effects of Bufo (Anura: Bufonidae) toxins on tadpoles from native and exotic Bufo habitats. Herpetologica 1999:192-199.
Dexter, R.R. 1932. The food habitats of the imported toad Bufo marinus in the sugar cane sections of Puerto Rico. Bulletin of the International Society for Sugar Cane Technology 74: 1-6.
Dobkin, D.S., Gettinger, R.D. and O'Connor, M.P. 1989. Importance of retreat sites for the hydration state in Bufo marinus during a dry rainy season. American Journal of Zoology 29:88A.
Easteal, S. 1981. The history of introduction of Bufo marinus (Amphibia: Anura); a natural experiment in evolution. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 16: 93 - 113.
Easteal, S., Van Beurden, E.K. Floyd, R.B. and Sabath, M.D. 1985. Continuing geographical spread of Bufo marinus in Australia: range expansion between 1974 and 1980. Journal of Herpetology. 19(2): 185-188.
Easteal, S., and Floyd, R.B. 1986. The ecological genetics of introduced populations of the giant toad, Bufo marinus: dispersal and neighbourhood size. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 27:17-45.
Ely, C.A. 1944. Development of Bufo marinus larvae in dilute sea water. Copeia 1956(4): 256.
Evans, M., and Lampo, M. 1996. Diet of Bufo marinus in Venezuela. Journal of Herpetology 30:73-76.
Floyd, R.B. 1984. Variations in temperature preference with stage of development of Bufo marinus larva. Journal of Herpetology 18:153-158.
Freeland, W.J. 1985. The need to control cane toads. Search 16(7-8): 211-215.
Freeland, W.J. and Martin, K.C. 1985. The rate of expansion by Bufo marinus in northern Australia. Australian Wildlife Research 12: 555-559.
Freeland, W.J. 1986. Populations of cane toads, Bufo marinus, in relation to the since colonization. Australian Wildlife Research 13:321-329.
Freeland, W.J., Delvinqueir, B.L.J. and Bonnin, B. 1986. Food and parasitism of the cane toad Bufo marinus in relation to time since colonization. Australian Wildlife Research 13:489-499.
Freeland, W.J. and Kerin, S.H. 1988. Within-habitat relationships between invading Bufo marinus and Australian species of frog during the tropical dry season. Australian Wildlife Research 115:293-306.
Froggatt, W.W. 1936. The introduction of the great Mexican toad Bufo marinus into Australia. Australian Nature 9: 163-164.
Gleitzmann, M. 1999 Toad Rage. Pan MacMillan, Sydney.
Goodacre. W.A. 1947. The giant toad ( Bufo marinus) an enemy of bees. Aricultural Gazette of NSW 58: 374-375.
Gunn, R.H., Galloway, R.W., Walker, J., Nix, H.A., McAlpine, J.R. and Richardson, D.P. 1972 Shoalwater Bay area, Queensland. Technical memo 72/10 CSIRO Division of Land Research, Canberra.
Hearnden, M.N. 1991 Reproductive and larval ecology of Bufo marinus ( Anura: Bufonidae). Unpublished Ph. D Thesis. James Cook University of Northern Queensland, Townsville.
Hinckley, A.D. 1962. Diet of the giant toad, Bufo marinus (L.), in Fiji. Herpetologica 6:410-411.
Hutchings. R.W. 1979. A native predator of the cane toad ( Bufo marinus). North Queensland Naturalist 45(174): 4-5.
Illingworth, J.F. 1941. Feeding habits of Bufo marinus. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 11:51.
Inger, R.F., and Stuebing, R.B. 2005 A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo, (2nd Edition). Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
Kinghorn, J.R. 1938. The giant toad Bufo marinus in Australia. Australian Museum Magazine 6:410-411.
Knowles, R.P. 1964. The poison toad and the canine. Veterinary Medicine 59:38-42.
Krakauer, T. 1968. The ecology of the neotropical toad Bufo marinus in south Florida. Herpetologica 24: 214-221.
Krakauer, T. 1970. Tolerance limits of the toad, Bufo marinus, in South Florida. Comp. Biochemical Physiology 33: 15-26.
Leonard, M.D. 1933. Notes on the food of the giant toad Bufo marinus (L.) in Puerto Rica. Journal of Economic Entomology 26: 11-12.
Lever, R.J.A.W. 1938. The giant toad - distribution, diet and development. Agricultural Journal ( Fiji). 9(2): 28.
Lever, R.J.A.W. 1944. Food of the Giant Toad. Agricultural Journal ( Fiji). 15(1): 28.
Lewis, M. 1988 Cane Toads. An unnatural History. Film, IMDB Promotions. Film Australia Pty Ltd. Distributed by Umbrella Entertainments Australia.
Marchal-Segault, D. 1976. Toxicite de quelques insecticides pour des entate de Bufo marinus (Amphibiens, Anoures). Bulletin of Ecology 7: 411 - 416.
Meredith,P. 1996. Some truths about cane toads. Australian Geographic 44:84-99.
Muntgomery, R.W. 1935. The great American toad ( Bufo marinus). Cane Growers Quarterly Bulletin 3:21-27.
Muntgomery, R.W. 1936. A survey of the feeding habits of the giant toad ( Bufo marinus) and notes on its progress since introduction to Queensland. Proceedings of the Queensland Society of Sugar Cane Technologists 1936:63-74.
Ormsby. A.I. 1957. Notes on the giant toad ( Bufo marinus). Proceedings of the Royal Zoological Society of NSW 1955-1956:54-55.
Otani, A., Palumbo, N. and Read, G. 1969. Pharmacodynamics and treatment of mammals poisoned by Bufo marinus toxin. American Journal of Veterinary Research 30: 1865-1872.
Pemberton, C.E. 1933. Introduction to Hawaii of the tropical American Toad Bufo marinus. Hawaiian Planters' Record 37: 15-16.
Pemberton. C.E. 1934. Local investigations on the introduced tropical American Toad Bufo marinus. Hawaiian Planter's Record 38:186-192.
Pemberton, C.E. 1949. Longevity of the tropical American Toad, Bufo marinus. Science 110: 512.
Petranka, J.W. 1989. Response of toad tadpoles to conflicting chemical stimuli: predator avoidance versus “optimal” foraging. Herpetologica 45:283-292.
Phillips, B.L., Brown, G.P. and Shine, R. 2003. Assessing the potential impact of Cane Toads on Australian snakes. Conservation Biology 17:1738-1747.
Phillips, B.L. and Shine, R. 2004. Adapting to an invasive species: toxic cane toads induce morphological change in Australian snakes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 101:17150-17155.
Pippet, J.R. 1975. The Marine Toad, Bufo marinus, in Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea Agricultural Journal 26(1): 23-30.
Rabor, D.S. 1952. Preliminary notes on the giant toad, Bufo marinus. (Linn.), in the Phillippine Islands. Copeia 1952: 281-282.
Reid, J. 2000 Cane Toad Community Education and Awareness Program, Northern Rivers Region. National Parks and Wildlife Service, New South Wales.
Reimer, W.J. 1959. Giant Toads of Florida. Journal of the Florida Academy of Science 21: 207-211.
Robinson, P. 2005. Scientists onto the cane toad. Age 17 October 2005. Pp. 5.
Rossi, J.V. 1983. The use of olefactory cues in Bufo marinus. Journal of Herpetology 17:72-73.
Ruibal, R. 1962. The adaptive value of bladder-water in the toad Bufo cogitatus. Physiological Zoology 35:218-223.
Sabath, M.D., Broughton, W.C. and Eastel, S. 1981. Expansion of the range of the introduced toad Bufo marinus in Australia from 1935 to 1974. Copeia 1981(3): 676 680.
Salleh, A. 2005. Cane toads take the fast lane, literally. News in Science. 15 September 2005. http://abc.net.au/entate/new/stories/s1460974.htm
Savage, J. 1960. Geographic variation in the toad Bufo marinus. Copeia 1960:233-236.
Seabrook, W.A. and E.B. Dettman. 1996. Roads as activity corridors for Cane Toads in Australia. Australian Journal of Wildlife Management. 60:363-368.
Schwarzkopf, L. and Alford, R.A. 1996. Dessication and shelter site use in a tropical amphibian: comparing toads with physical models. Functional Ecology 10:193-200.
Seebacher, F. and Alford, R.A. 1999. Movement and microhabitat use of a terrestrial amphibian ( Bufo marinus) on a tropical island: seasonal variation and environmental correlates. Journal of Herpetology 33:208-214.
Shine, R. and Covacevich, J. 1983. Ecology of highly venomous snakes of the Australian genus Oxyuranus.Journal of Herpetology 17:60-69.
Shoemaker. V.H. and Waring, H. 1968. Effect of hypothalamic lesions on the water balance response of the toad ( Bufo marinus). Comparative Biochemistry Physiology 24:47-54.
Sinsch, U. 1997. Postmetamorphic dispersal and recruitment of first breeders in a Bufo calamita metapopulation. Oecologica 112:42-47.
Smyth, E.G. 1916. The white grubs injuring sugar cane in Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico University Journal of Agriculture 1: 141-169.
Speare, R., and O'shea, P. 1989. The marine toad Bufo marinus and the search for a killer disease. Pp. 166-172 in Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Annual Meeting 14-19 October 1989, edited by J.H. Olsen and M. Eisenacher. American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, Greensboro, N.C. Philadelphia.
Stammer, D. 1981. Some notes on the cane toad ( Bufo marinus). Australian Journal of Herpetology 1(2): 61.
Stopthetoad.com. Conservation Council of Western Australia, Perth.
Straughan, I.R. 1966. The natural history of the cane toad in Queensland. Australian Natural History 15: 230-232.
Strussman, S., Ribeiro do Vale, M.B., Hoffmeister, M.H. and Magnusson, W.E. 1984. Diet and foraging mode of Bufo marinus and Leptodactylus occelatus. Journal of Herpetology 18: 138-146.
Stuart, L.C. 1951. The distributional implications of temperature tolerances and haemoglobin values in the toads Bufo marinus (Linnaeus) and Bufo bocourti Brocchi. Copeia 1951(3): 220-228.
Sutherherst, R.W., Floyd, R.B., and Maywald, G.F. 1996. The potential distribution of the cane toad, Bufo marinus L., in Australia. Conservation Biology 10:294-299.
Taylor, P.M., Tyler, M.J. and Shearman, D.J.C. 1985a. Gastric acid secretion in the toad Bufo marinus with the description of a new technique for in vivo monitoring. Comparitive Biochemistry Physiology 81A(2): 325-327.
Taylor, P.M., Tyler, M.J. and Shearman, D.J.C. 1985b. Gastric emptying and intestinal transit in Bufo marinus and the action of E prostaglandins. Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science 63: 223-230.
Thomas, P. 1934. Cane toads save sugar crop. Nature 136:403.
Tyler,M.J. 1976 Frogs. Collins, Sydney.
Tyler. M.J. 1989. Australian Frogs. Chapter 10 The Cane Toad. Viking O'Neil, Ringwood, Victoria.
Van Beurden, E.K. and Grigg. G.C. 1980 An isolated and expanding population of the introduced toad Bufo marinus in New South Wales. Australian Wildlife Research 7: 305-310.
Van Beurden, E. 1980. Mosquitoes ( Mimomyia elegans (Taylor)) feeding on the introduced toad Bufo marinus (Linnaeus): implications for control of a toad pest. Australian Zoologist 20(3): 501-504.
Van Beurden, E. 1981. Bioclimatic limits to the spread of Bufo marinus in Australia: a baseline. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 11:143-149.
Van Dam, R.A., Walden, D.J. and Begg, G.W. 2002. A preliminary risk assessment of cane toads in Kakadu National Park. Supervising Scientist Report 164. Environmental Research Institute of the Supervising Scientist, Darwin.
Walker. R.F. and Whitford, W.G. 1970. Soil water absorption capabilities in selected species of anurans. Herpetologica 26: 411-418.
Waterhouse, D.F. 1974. The biological control of dung. Scientific American 230: 101-109.
Weber, N.A. 1938. The food of the giant toad Bufo marinus (L.) in Trinidad and British Guinea with special; reference to the ants. Annals of the Entomology Society of America 31:499-503.
White, A.W. 2003. Herpetofauna of Boodjamulla National Park and the Riversleigh World Heritage Area, north-western Queensland. Herpetofauna 33(2): 65-77.
Wolcott, G.N. 1937. What the giant Surinam toad Bufo marinus L. is eating now in Puerto Rico. Journal of Agriculture University of Puerto Rico 21: 79-84.
Woodford, J. 1996. Warts and all: embalmer sees cane toads as little treasures. Sydney Morning Herald 20 April 1996. P.6.
Zug, G.R., Lindgren, E. and Pippet, J.R. 1975. Distribution and ecology of the Marine Toad, Bufo marinus, in Papua New Guinea. Pacific Science 29: 31-50.
Zug, G.R. and Zug, P.B. 1979. The marine toad, Bufo marinus: a natural history resume of native populations. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology (284): 1-58.
This content is PDF only. Please click on the PDF icon to access.

Contents

Data & Figures

References

Adams, N.G. 1967 Bufo marinus eaten by Rattus rattus. North Queensland Naturalist 34:5.
Akizawa,T., Mukai, T., Matsukawa, M., Yoshioka., M, Morris, J.F. and Butler, V.P. 1994. Structure of novel bufadienolides in the eggs of a toad, Bufo marinus. Chemical Pharmacology Bulletin 42:754-756.
Alcala, A.C. 1957. Phillipine notes on the ecology of the giant marine toad. Silliman Journal 4:90-96.
Alexander, T.R. 1965. Observations of the feeding behaviour of Bufo marinus (Linne). Herpetologica 20(4): 255-259.
Alford, R.A. and Wilbur, H.M. 1985. Priority effects in experimental pond communities: competition between Bufo and Rana. Ecology 66:1097-1105.
Alford, R.A., Cohen, M.P., Crossland, M.R., Hearnden, M.N. and Schwarzkopf, L. 1995. Population biology of Bufo marinus in Northern Australia. Pp. 173-181 in Wetland Research in the Wet-Dry Tropics of Australia edited by C.M. Finlayson, Supervising Scientist Report No. 101, Office of the Supervising Scientist, Canberra.
Allen, E.R. and Neill, W.T. 1956. Effects of marine toad toxins on man. Herpetologica 12(2): 150-151.
Altman, J., Griffiths, T. and Whitehead, P. 2003. Invasion of the rubbish frog. Australian Nature 2003: 44-51.
Bailey, P. 1976. Food of the marine toad, Bufo marinus, and six species of skink in a cacao plantation in New Britain, Papua New Guinea. Australian Wildlife Research 3:185-188.
Banks, B. and Beebee, T.J.C. 1987. Spawn predation and larval growth inhibition as mechanisms for niche separation in amphibians. Oecologica 72:569-573.
Barton, K.E. 1977. Behavioural thermoregulation in the toad Bufo marinus in a temperature gradient. Bulletin of the New Jersey Academy of Science 22: 48-50.
Beiswenger, R.E. 1978. Response of Bufo tadpoles (Amphibia: Anura: Bufonidae) to laboratory gradients of temperature. Journal of Herpetology 12:499-504.
Bell, A.F. 1940. The giant toad in Queensland Australia. Agricultural Journal ( Fiji) 11(2): 55.
Bently, P.J. and Main, A.R. 1972. Zonal differences in permeability of the skin of some anuran amphibians. American Journal of Physiology 223:361-363.
Bettinger, H.F. and O'Loughlin, I. 1950. The use of the male toad, Bufo marinus, for pregnancy tests. Medical Journal of Australia July 8 1950: 40-42.
Boice, R and Boice, C. 1971. Interspecific competition in captive Bufo americanus toads. Journal of Biological Psychology 12: 32-36.
Brattstrom. B.H. 1962. Homing in the giant toad, Bufo marinus. Herpetologica 18: 176-180.
Breeden, K. 1963. Cane Toad. Wildlife Australia 1:31.
Burnett, S. 1997. Colonizing cane toads cause population declines in native predators: reliable anecdotal information and management implications. Pacific Conservation Biology 3:65-72.
Carpenter, C.C. and Gillingham, J.C. 1987. Water hole fidelity in the marine toad, Bufo marinus. Journal of Herpetology 21:158-161.
Cassels, M. (1970). Another predator of the Cane Toad. North Queensland Naturalist 37(151): 6.
Catling, P.C., Hertog, A., Burt, R.J., Wombey, J.C. and Forrester, R.I. 1999. The short-term effect of cane toads ( Bufo marinus) on native fauna in the Gulf Country of the Northern Territory. Wildlife Research 26:161-185.
Clayton, D., and Silke, A. 2003 Cane Toad. What happened to Baz? Independent Film. WWW.cane-toad.com.
Cohen. M.P. and Alford, R.A. 1996. Factors affecting diurnal shelter site use by the cane toad, Bufo marinus. Herpetologica 52: 172-181.
Covacevich, J. 1974. An unusual aggregation of snakes following major flooding in the Ipswich-Brisbane area, south-eastern Queensland. Herpetofauna 7:21-24.
Covacevich, J and Archer, M. 1975. The distribution of the Cane Toad, Bufo marinus, in Australia and its effects on indigenous vertebrates. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 17(2): 305-310.
Crossland, M.R. 1997 Impact of eggs, hatchlings and tadpoles of the introduced cane toad Bufo marinus (Anura: Bufonidae) on native aquatic fauna in northern Queensland. Unpublished PhD thesis, James Cook University of Northern Queensland, Townsville.
Crossland, M.R. 1998. Predation by tadpoles on toxic toad eggs: the effect of tadpole size on predation success and tadpole survival. Journal of Herpetology 32:443-446.
Crossland, M.R. and Alford, R.A. 1998. Evaluation of the toxicity of eggs, hatchlings and tadpoles of the introduced toad Bufo marinus (Anura: Bufonidae) on native Australian aquatic predators. Australian Journal of Ecology 23:129-137.
Crossland, M.R. and Azevedo-Ramos, C. 1999. Effects of Bufo (Anura: Bufonidae) toxins on tadpoles from native and exotic Bufo habitats. Herpetologica 1999:192-199.
Dexter, R.R. 1932. The food habitats of the imported toad Bufo marinus in the sugar cane sections of Puerto Rico. Bulletin of the International Society for Sugar Cane Technology 74: 1-6.
Dobkin, D.S., Gettinger, R.D. and O'Connor, M.P. 1989. Importance of retreat sites for the hydration state in Bufo marinus during a dry rainy season. American Journal of Zoology 29:88A.
Easteal, S. 1981. The history of introduction of Bufo marinus (Amphibia: Anura); a natural experiment in evolution. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 16: 93 - 113.
Easteal, S., Van Beurden, E.K. Floyd, R.B. and Sabath, M.D. 1985. Continuing geographical spread of Bufo marinus in Australia: range expansion between 1974 and 1980. Journal of Herpetology. 19(2): 185-188.
Easteal, S., and Floyd, R.B. 1986. The ecological genetics of introduced populations of the giant toad, Bufo marinus: dispersal and neighbourhood size. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 27:17-45.
Ely, C.A. 1944. Development of Bufo marinus larvae in dilute sea water. Copeia 1956(4): 256.
Evans, M., and Lampo, M. 1996. Diet of Bufo marinus in Venezuela. Journal of Herpetology 30:73-76.
Floyd, R.B. 1984. Variations in temperature preference with stage of development of Bufo marinus larva. Journal of Herpetology 18:153-158.
Freeland, W.J. 1985. The need to control cane toads. Search 16(7-8): 211-215.
Freeland, W.J. and Martin, K.C. 1985. The rate of expansion by Bufo marinus in northern Australia. Australian Wildlife Research 12: 555-559.
Freeland, W.J. 1986. Populations of cane toads, Bufo marinus, in relation to the since colonization. Australian Wildlife Research 13:321-329.
Freeland, W.J., Delvinqueir, B.L.J. and Bonnin, B. 1986. Food and parasitism of the cane toad Bufo marinus in relation to time since colonization. Australian Wildlife Research 13:489-499.
Freeland, W.J. and Kerin, S.H. 1988. Within-habitat relationships between invading Bufo marinus and Australian species of frog during the tropical dry season. Australian Wildlife Research 115:293-306.
Froggatt, W.W. 1936. The introduction of the great Mexican toad Bufo marinus into Australia. Australian Nature 9: 163-164.
Gleitzmann, M. 1999 Toad Rage. Pan MacMillan, Sydney.
Goodacre. W.A. 1947. The giant toad ( Bufo marinus) an enemy of bees. Aricultural Gazette of NSW 58: 374-375.
Gunn, R.H., Galloway, R.W., Walker, J., Nix, H.A., McAlpine, J.R. and Richardson, D.P. 1972 Shoalwater Bay area, Queensland. Technical memo 72/10 CSIRO Division of Land Research, Canberra.
Hearnden, M.N. 1991 Reproductive and larval ecology of Bufo marinus ( Anura: Bufonidae). Unpublished Ph. D Thesis. James Cook University of Northern Queensland, Townsville.
Hinckley, A.D. 1962. Diet of the giant toad, Bufo marinus (L.), in Fiji. Herpetologica 6:410-411.
Hutchings. R.W. 1979. A native predator of the cane toad ( Bufo marinus). North Queensland Naturalist 45(174): 4-5.
Illingworth, J.F. 1941. Feeding habits of Bufo marinus. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 11:51.
Inger, R.F., and Stuebing, R.B. 2005 A Field Guide to the Frogs of Borneo, (2nd Edition). Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.
Kinghorn, J.R. 1938. The giant toad Bufo marinus in Australia. Australian Museum Magazine 6:410-411.
Knowles, R.P. 1964. The poison toad and the canine. Veterinary Medicine 59:38-42.
Krakauer, T. 1968. The ecology of the neotropical toad Bufo marinus in south Florida. Herpetologica 24: 214-221.
Krakauer, T. 1970. Tolerance limits of the toad, Bufo marinus, in South Florida. Comp. Biochemical Physiology 33: 15-26.
Leonard, M.D. 1933. Notes on the food of the giant toad Bufo marinus (L.) in Puerto Rica. Journal of Economic Entomology 26: 11-12.
Lever, R.J.A.W. 1938. The giant toad - distribution, diet and development. Agricultural Journal ( Fiji). 9(2): 28.
Lever, R.J.A.W. 1944. Food of the Giant Toad. Agricultural Journal ( Fiji). 15(1): 28.
Lewis, M. 1988 Cane Toads. An unnatural History. Film, IMDB Promotions. Film Australia Pty Ltd. Distributed by Umbrella Entertainments Australia.
Marchal-Segault, D. 1976. Toxicite de quelques insecticides pour des entate de Bufo marinus (Amphibiens, Anoures). Bulletin of Ecology 7: 411 - 416.
Meredith,P. 1996. Some truths about cane toads. Australian Geographic 44:84-99.
Muntgomery, R.W. 1935. The great American toad ( Bufo marinus). Cane Growers Quarterly Bulletin 3:21-27.
Muntgomery, R.W. 1936. A survey of the feeding habits of the giant toad ( Bufo marinus) and notes on its progress since introduction to Queensland. Proceedings of the Queensland Society of Sugar Cane Technologists 1936:63-74.
Ormsby. A.I. 1957. Notes on the giant toad ( Bufo marinus). Proceedings of the Royal Zoological Society of NSW 1955-1956:54-55.
Otani, A., Palumbo, N. and Read, G. 1969. Pharmacodynamics and treatment of mammals poisoned by Bufo marinus toxin. American Journal of Veterinary Research 30: 1865-1872.
Pemberton, C.E. 1933. Introduction to Hawaii of the tropical American Toad Bufo marinus. Hawaiian Planters' Record 37: 15-16.
Pemberton. C.E. 1934. Local investigations on the introduced tropical American Toad Bufo marinus. Hawaiian Planter's Record 38:186-192.
Pemberton, C.E. 1949. Longevity of the tropical American Toad, Bufo marinus. Science 110: 512.
Petranka, J.W. 1989. Response of toad tadpoles to conflicting chemical stimuli: predator avoidance versus “optimal” foraging. Herpetologica 45:283-292.
Phillips, B.L., Brown, G.P. and Shine, R. 2003. Assessing the potential impact of Cane Toads on Australian snakes. Conservation Biology 17:1738-1747.
Phillips, B.L. and Shine, R. 2004. Adapting to an invasive species: toxic cane toads induce morphological change in Australian snakes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 101:17150-17155.
Pippet, J.R. 1975. The Marine Toad, Bufo marinus, in Papua New Guinea. Papua New Guinea Agricultural Journal 26(1): 23-30.
Rabor, D.S. 1952. Preliminary notes on the giant toad, Bufo marinus. (Linn.), in the Phillippine Islands. Copeia 1952: 281-282.
Reid, J. 2000 Cane Toad Community Education and Awareness Program, Northern Rivers Region. National Parks and Wildlife Service, New South Wales.
Reimer, W.J. 1959. Giant Toads of Florida. Journal of the Florida Academy of Science 21: 207-211.
Robinson, P. 2005. Scientists onto the cane toad. Age 17 October 2005. Pp. 5.
Rossi, J.V. 1983. The use of olefactory cues in Bufo marinus. Journal of Herpetology 17:72-73.
Ruibal, R. 1962. The adaptive value of bladder-water in the toad Bufo cogitatus. Physiological Zoology 35:218-223.
Sabath, M.D., Broughton, W.C. and Eastel, S. 1981. Expansion of the range of the introduced toad Bufo marinus in Australia from 1935 to 1974. Copeia 1981(3): 676 680.
Salleh, A. 2005. Cane toads take the fast lane, literally. News in Science. 15 September 2005. http://abc.net.au/entate/new/stories/s1460974.htm
Savage, J. 1960. Geographic variation in the toad Bufo marinus. Copeia 1960:233-236.
Seabrook, W.A. and E.B. Dettman. 1996. Roads as activity corridors for Cane Toads in Australia. Australian Journal of Wildlife Management. 60:363-368.
Schwarzkopf, L. and Alford, R.A. 1996. Dessication and shelter site use in a tropical amphibian: comparing toads with physical models. Functional Ecology 10:193-200.
Seebacher, F. and Alford, R.A. 1999. Movement and microhabitat use of a terrestrial amphibian ( Bufo marinus) on a tropical island: seasonal variation and environmental correlates. Journal of Herpetology 33:208-214.
Shine, R. and Covacevich, J. 1983. Ecology of highly venomous snakes of the Australian genus Oxyuranus.Journal of Herpetology 17:60-69.
Shoemaker. V.H. and Waring, H. 1968. Effect of hypothalamic lesions on the water balance response of the toad ( Bufo marinus). Comparative Biochemistry Physiology 24:47-54.
Sinsch, U. 1997. Postmetamorphic dispersal and recruitment of first breeders in a Bufo calamita metapopulation. Oecologica 112:42-47.
Smyth, E.G. 1916. The white grubs injuring sugar cane in Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico University Journal of Agriculture 1: 141-169.
Speare, R., and O'shea, P. 1989. The marine toad Bufo marinus and the search for a killer disease. Pp. 166-172 in Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians Annual Meeting 14-19 October 1989, edited by J.H. Olsen and M. Eisenacher. American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, Greensboro, N.C. Philadelphia.
Stammer, D. 1981. Some notes on the cane toad ( Bufo marinus). Australian Journal of Herpetology 1(2): 61.
Stopthetoad.com. Conservation Council of Western Australia, Perth.
Straughan, I.R. 1966. The natural history of the cane toad in Queensland. Australian Natural History 15: 230-232.
Strussman, S., Ribeiro do Vale, M.B., Hoffmeister, M.H. and Magnusson, W.E. 1984. Diet and foraging mode of Bufo marinus and Leptodactylus occelatus. Journal of Herpetology 18: 138-146.
Stuart, L.C. 1951. The distributional implications of temperature tolerances and haemoglobin values in the toads Bufo marinus (Linnaeus) and Bufo bocourti Brocchi. Copeia 1951(3): 220-228.
Sutherherst, R.W., Floyd, R.B., and Maywald, G.F. 1996. The potential distribution of the cane toad, Bufo marinus L., in Australia. Conservation Biology 10:294-299.
Taylor, P.M., Tyler, M.J. and Shearman, D.J.C. 1985a. Gastric acid secretion in the toad Bufo marinus with the description of a new technique for in vivo monitoring. Comparitive Biochemistry Physiology 81A(2): 325-327.
Taylor, P.M., Tyler, M.J. and Shearman, D.J.C. 1985b. Gastric emptying and intestinal transit in Bufo marinus and the action of E prostaglandins. Australian Journal of Experimental Biology and Medical Science 63: 223-230.
Thomas, P. 1934. Cane toads save sugar crop. Nature 136:403.
Tyler,M.J. 1976 Frogs. Collins, Sydney.
Tyler. M.J. 1989. Australian Frogs. Chapter 10 The Cane Toad. Viking O'Neil, Ringwood, Victoria.
Van Beurden, E.K. and Grigg. G.C. 1980 An isolated and expanding population of the introduced toad Bufo marinus in New South Wales. Australian Wildlife Research 7: 305-310.
Van Beurden, E. 1980. Mosquitoes ( Mimomyia elegans (Taylor)) feeding on the introduced toad Bufo marinus (Linnaeus): implications for control of a toad pest. Australian Zoologist 20(3): 501-504.
Van Beurden, E. 1981. Bioclimatic limits to the spread of Bufo marinus in Australia: a baseline. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 11:143-149.
Van Dam, R.A., Walden, D.J. and Begg, G.W. 2002. A preliminary risk assessment of cane toads in Kakadu National Park. Supervising Scientist Report 164. Environmental Research Institute of the Supervising Scientist, Darwin.
Walker. R.F. and Whitford, W.G. 1970. Soil water absorption capabilities in selected species of anurans. Herpetologica 26: 411-418.
Waterhouse, D.F. 1974. The biological control of dung. Scientific American 230: 101-109.
Weber, N.A. 1938. The food of the giant toad Bufo marinus (L.) in Trinidad and British Guinea with special; reference to the ants. Annals of the Entomology Society of America 31:499-503.
White, A.W. 2003. Herpetofauna of Boodjamulla National Park and the Riversleigh World Heritage Area, north-western Queensland. Herpetofauna 33(2): 65-77.
Wolcott, G.N. 1937. What the giant Surinam toad Bufo marinus L. is eating now in Puerto Rico. Journal of Agriculture University of Puerto Rico 21: 79-84.
Woodford, J. 1996. Warts and all: embalmer sees cane toads as little treasures. Sydney Morning Herald 20 April 1996. P.6.
Zug, G.R., Lindgren, E. and Pippet, J.R. 1975. Distribution and ecology of the Marine Toad, Bufo marinus, in Papua New Guinea. Pacific Science 29: 31-50.
Zug, G.R. and Zug, P.B. 1979. The marine toad, Bufo marinus: a natural history resume of native populations. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology (284): 1-58.
Close Modal

or Create an Account

Close Modal
Close Modal