An overview of changes to the distribution and numbers of New South Wales birds was considered in relation to the IBRA bioregions, using data from Birds Australia's first and second national bird atlases ( Atlas 1 , 1977 - 1981 and Atlas 2 , 1998 - 2001). Reporting rates, adjusted for survey effort, were compared for 347 bird species. Of these, 184 species (53%) showed no change between the two atlases, 83 (24%) were recorded more frequently during Atlas 2 , and 80 (23%) were recorded less frequently during Atlas 2 . This represents a greater proportion of declining bird species in NSW compared with the whole of Australia - one previous study found that 15% of 422 species had declined nationally. Of 139 woodland species tested, 33 (24%) were recorded less frequently during Atlas 2 , a similar proportion to the broader pattern for all NSW bird species (23%). Woodland birds represented 41% of the declining bird species in NSW, 43% of the increasing species and 38% of species showing no change between the two atlases. Based on IUCN criteria, the current study indicates that 56 bird species may qualify as threatened in NSW. A brief case study is presented for one such species, the Gang-gang Cockatoo, which has subsequently been listed as threatened. Our study also identifies possible drivers of regional patterns by modelling changes in reporting rate for individual woodland bird species against a selection of bioregional features from the National Land and Water Resources Audit, Landscape Health in Australia database. Bioregions with greater rainfall had increased reporting rates and greater woodland bird diversity in Atlas 2 compared with Atlas 1 . Reporting rates for individual woodland bird species responded both positively and negatively to the % native vegetation cover and the % area grazed by livestock within bioregions.

The identification of Australian microchiropteran bats using acoustics is in its infancy, with the Anabat System (Corben 1989) predominantly being adopted as a tool to undertake such a task. Although species-significant call characteristics of free-flying bats have not been documented, identification of bats is generally achieved by comparison of recorded calls with calls accompanying the software and/or release calls of captured bats. This practice can be unreliable if a mechanism to describe the call characteristics is not in place for workers to describe their assessments. A much needed part of this mechanism is a common language of ultrasonic terms to facilitate the exchange of information among bat workers. By way of contributing to this need, a terminology to classify the structure of calls (shapes) and another of call parameters was developed. A selection of call parameters, based on international microchiropteran literature, was adapted for Anabat use. The proposed terminologies were used, with the measurement of chosen parameters of selected recordings, to describe some of the call characteristics of seventeen species of microchiropteran bats occurring in southeastern Queensland.

ABSTRACT The viral biocontrol agents Myxoma virus (MYXV) and Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease Virus (RHDV1), released in 1950 and 1996 respectively, are the only control tools to have resulted in significant and lasting landscape-scale suppression of rabbit populations in Australia. Multiple conservation benefits and significant economic savings have resulted from the long-term and widespread reductions in rabbit numbers and impacts. In an effort to ‘boost’ rabbit biocontrol, an additional variant of RHDV1 ('K5') was recently released nationwide to counteract the decreasing effectiveness of both RHDV1 and MYXV that results from the evolutionary ‘arms race’ between viruses and their hosts. Two years prior to the K5 release, an exotic RHDV strain (RHDV2) appeared in Australia. The commercially available vaccine used to protect pet and farmed rabbits against the officially released K5 was ineffective against the exotic RHDV2, resulting in numerous deaths of domestic rabbits. This created substantial confusion about which strain was released as a biocontrol tool, as well as renewed concerns amongst pet rabbit owners and rabbit farmers about the use of viruses as lethal rabbit control tools in general. Ongoing effective control of wild rabbits in Australia is absolutely essential to protect the substantial conservation gains made by the long-term suppression of rabbit numbers over the past decades, and there is currently no alternative population control tool to achieve this at the required landscape scale. Vaccine formulations need updating to protect non-target farmed and pet rabbits from circulating field variants, including RHDV2, and to increase public acceptance for the ongoing use of viral biocontrol for feral rabbit populations.

ABSTRACT During the 1999 community survey of Australian tree-kangaroos by the Tree Kangaroo and Mammal Group of the Atherton Tablelands, the well-known naturalist, John Young, submitted a detailed account of watching a tree-kangaroo for half an hour in the Iron Range rainforest of Cape York Peninsula in 1979. At the time this was treated by hard-nosed scientists as “needing confirmation”, particularly as numerous earlier collecting expeditions had worked the area without the hint of a tree-kangaroo. John's report triggered a flurry of interest and has resulted in the collation of numerous “sightings” from the Peninsula and some targeted searches for the animal, but as yet no concrete evidence. So does the animal exist? Tantalising leads, but no hard evidence, have been found for the occurrence of tree-kangaroos in the region. We discuss the possibility that such a creature exists and what might be necessary to find it, and if it does occur what level of evidence is required.

The modern known distribution of the New Holland Mouse Pseudomys novaehollandiae (Waterhouse, 1843) (Muridae: Rodentia) in coastal and near-coastal southeastern Australia excludes historical and subfossil records on the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range. A recent record from the Torrington area, in the western part of the New South Wales New England Tablelands bioregion, is documented. The specimen record comprised an intact fresh skull and was distinguished from other rodent species on the basis of dental and cranial characters. This record is significant as one of the first modern records of P. novaehollandiae from the western slopes of the Great Dividing Range, lending credence to historical western records and suggesting that the current assessment of the species as secure in New South Wales with minimal reduction in range since European settlement should be reconsidered.

Mobbing is an anti-predator strategy in which prey animals, notably birds and mammals, aggravate a potential predator to either distract or drive them from the vicinity. The Powerful Owl Ninox strenua is a large forest owl endemic to eastern Australia that preys mainly on arboreal mammals and birds. We identified records of 30 species of birds and one mammal known to mob the Powerful Owl from scientific literature and unpublished studies. In our study in southern Sydney, Powerful Owls were most frequently mobbed by Noisy Miners Manorina melanocephala and Pied Currawongs Strepera graculina , followed by Grey Butcherbirds Cracticus torquatus and Australian Magpies Cracticus tibicen . We observed mobbing by three species of bird and one mammal that were not previously recorded as mobbing species, including agonistic responses by a Tawny Frogmouth Podargus strigoides and Common Brushtail Possum Trichosurus vulpecula during the time owls were active.

Surveys of the impact of stem-boring insects were carried out across 14 Flooded Gum Eucalyptus grandis plantations in the New South Wales North Coast bioregion. This paper reports on novel observations made during this work of the Bleating Tree Frog Litoria dentata seeking refuge in cossid moth galleries. On four occasions, frogs were found in Giant Wood Moth Endoxyla cinereus galleries, which occurred in more than 10% of trees in the entire study. The incident of damage caused by a second cossid species, the Culama Wood Moth Culama australis was far lower (0.2%), with only one frog observed in a gallery excavated by this species. These structures make reasonable retreat sites for arboreal frogs because they are generally inaccessible to larger predators by being located off the ground and having narrow entrances.

ABSTRACT The Australian heterobranch sea slugs are popular among the public and are also important as potential indicators of environmental change. Despite this, there is no simple key for their identification and, as a result, most attempts at identification are made by comparative reference to books, websites, social-media or through museums and correspondence with taxonomists. At present there is no opportunity for users to self-interact with a key online. Therefore, development of an interactive taxonomic key that allows users to identify a sea slug specimen without any previous taxonomic knowledge fulfills a practical need by providing a valuable identification tool for amateurs and the general public. The objective of NudiKey is to summarise the essential diagnostic characteristics of the epibenthic Australian heterobranch families and, using the freely available Lucid v3.3 software and high quality photographs of living animals, develop a well-illustrated, user-friendly, interactive key.

Captive koalas were provided with specified proportions of known browse Species. Faecal pellets collected from each koala were analysed for cuticle fragments to determine the accuracy of this method for estimating the species composition of the diet Of koalas. Food species were consistently observed in faecal pellets collected 34 h after presentation of browse and remained represented in pellets collected up to 154h post-feeding. Faecal pellet examination provided an accurate means of describing the species composition of the diet of the koalas for the species of browse offered.

Non-breeding habitats are an important, yet poorly understood component of the habitat requirements of most frog species. As a result, non-breeding habitats may be poorly protected and their loss may be the proximate cause of decline for some species. The giant burrowing frog is a threatened frog species in south-eastern Australia. To understand its non-breeding habitat requirements, we measured the habitat attributes associated with non-breeding records of this frog from a number of sites in southern New South Wales and compared these with a series of sites where the species has not been detected. The giant burrowing frog records were typically associated with dry forest and little vegetative ground cover and we suggest that this may be related to the ability of the species to burrow at a site. Suitable habitat areas appear to be widespread across south-eastern NSW and Victoria, and the difficulty in detecting the species appears to be the best explanation for the lack of records from many areas.

The aims of this paper are to describe the distribution and status of bell frog populations in New Zealand and to highlight the potential benefits these New Zealand populations have for collaborative studies. Bell frogs ( Litoria aurea and L. raniformis ) were introduced to New Zealand in the late 19 th century. Over the past 100 years they have managed to spread to many parts of the entire country. Although their preferred habitat does not often overlap with that of the indigenous Leiopelma spp., their presence has raised many concerns within the local frog conservation community. The Native Frog Recovery Group (DOC, New Zealand) has the primary objective of securing populations of indigenous frogs ( Leiopelma spp.) but in light of the high conservation status of bell frogs in Australia members of the group have often discussed their moral obligations regarding the conservation of introduced bell frogs in New Zealand. Although Leiopelma are totally protected species in New Zealand, bell frog tadpoles are commonly sold as pets and are regularly moved between North and South Islands. Advocacy for indigenous frogs relies heavily on previous exposure to the more charismatic and frequently encountered introduced bell frogs. The barriers associated with working on endangered and protected frogs in Australia could be avoided by conducting important conservation-related research on bell frogs in New Zealand. Several research projects (e.g. cryopreservation of female gametes, chytrid research) are briefly described that would provide data for more effective conservation of these species. In 2006 the New Zealand Frog Research Group was formed which provides the necessary infrastructure for such collaborative studies.

The Magnificent Broodfrog Pseudophryne covacevichae Ingram and Corben 1994 is a Vulnerable frog species that was believed to be highly localised in the Ravenshoe region of the southern Atherton Tableland, north Queensland. Here we extend the known range of P. covacevichae approximately 160 km south-southeast to the Paluma Range. This represents a significant range extension and we point out the need for surveys in the intervening upland open forests, and genetic analysis of population structure of this threatened species. Additionally, we extend the range of Uperoleia altissima Davies et al. 1993 south to the Paluma Range, and provide additional information on its distribution and habitat. We also discuss the need for detailed analysis of the relationship between P. covacevichae and the phenotypically similar species P. major Parker 1940.

ABSTRACT Environmental DNA, or eDNA—DNA shed from organisms and extracted from environmental samples—is an emerging survey technique that has the potential to transform biodiversity monitoring in freshwater ecosystems. We provide a brief overview of the primary methodological aspects of eDNA sampling that ecologists should consider before taking environmental samples in the field. We outline five key methodological considerations: (i) targeting single species vs multiple species; (ii) where and when to sample; (iii) how much water to collect; (iv) how many samples to take; and (v) recognising potential sources of false positives. The need to account for false negatives and false positives in eDNA surveys, and the power of species occupancy detection models in accounting for imperfect detection, is also discussed.

The Occurrence of megachiropterans and microchiropterans on Fraser island was examined using a combination of visual observations, mist nets, harp traps, and ultrasonic detection. The distribution and activity were examined in relation to vegetation categories. Eighteen bat species were recorded in the survey area, making bats the most numerous mammal group on Fraser island. The greatest number of species was found over water and in woodland. The highest bat activity levels on vehicle transects Occurred in heath and open forest. Miniopterus australis and Nyctinomus australis were widespread and were recorded in most of the vegetation categories. Five species were captured in mist nets and harp traps, five solely from spotlighting, five from vehicle transects and thirteen from on-foot and remote detection. The biases and the importance of using a combination of survey techniques are discussed.

We monitored a population of Stuttering Frog Mixophyes balbus tadpoles in Macquarie Pass National Park near Albion Park on the south coast of New South Wales. The species was initially detected by the presence of tadpoles at one site in 2000. Surveys thereafter were conducted at this site and the broader catchment of Macquarie Rivulet in an attempt to detect adults and or other tadpoles. Fifteen 250 m transects located along perennial creeks were surveyed at night for 30 min each and diurnal searches for tadpoles were conducted along approximately five km of creekline. About 200-300 tadpoles were recorded at this same site in January 2005; this cohort declined to about 15 tadpoles by September 2005. A total of 20 small tadpoles were taken into captivity in January 2005 in an attempt to maintain a captive population. Swab samples taken from free-living tadpoles indicated the presence of the frog chytrid fungus, Bactrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Mixophyes balbus may no longer persist at this site and managers now have to decide if the last cohort should be allowed to breed in captivity or an attempt made to outbreed this contracted genetic base. The captive population raises the dilemma, what should we do with captive populations that represents the last genetic vestige of an isolated population that may not persist in the wild?

Systematic (time constrained) and targeted surveys were conducted from 1996-2014 for the green and golden bell frog Litoria aurea on the Crookhaven River floodplain, east of Nowra on the south coast of New South Wales. In April 2008, a large number of metamorphlings were observed at Brundee Swamp Nature Reserve. This was followed by a significant recruitment of frogs so that by February 2010 L. aurea were recorded breeding nearby in Worrigee and Terara Swamps. At the end of April 2010 tens of thousands of metamorphling L. aurea dispersed from these wetlands across the floodplain. So-called explosive breeding events have been reported for this species before but never have they been documented. In December 2010 L. aurea again bred in Worrigee (and presumably Terara Swamp) and in early April 2011 adult and sub-adult animals appeared to have dispersed a distance of approximately 4 km south-west and 11 km to the south-east of Brundee Swamp. This expansion in distribution and abundance resulted in the recolonisation of historic L. aurea sites at Culburra and colonisation of other parts of the catchments where the species was never previously recorded. The recovery was not sustained and from March 2013 to March 2014 the species had declined in abundance and distribution. Most of the recorded breeding occurred in ephemeral wetlands: dispersal from these sites involved movements over highly modified rural and urban landscapes. Refuge sites populated outside the breeding events were strongly associated with stands of Cumbungi Typha spp. in drainage systems. These observations illustrate that historic and potential habitat of L. aurea should not be disregarded, even if the species has been absent for a considerable period. More effective management of L. aurea by government agencies requires a whole of landscape approach.

The Purple-spotted Gudgeon, Mogurnda adspersa , is widespread occurring in coastal drainages in northern NSW and Queensland, and an endangered western population in the Murray Darling System. This paper reports a study at the Inland Fisheries Research Station, Narrandera in the 1960s using fish from the western population. M. adspersa bred in ponds and aquaria at temperatures between 20.0 and 29.9oC (34.0oC at water surface), and in ponds between December and February. An abundant food supply was essential but rising water levels were not required. The elaborate spawning behaviour and embryological development of the eggs, larvae and juvenile fish were recorded. The eggs were demersal, transparent, telolecithal and elliptical, and they possessed an adhesive disc at one of the pointed ends, although the chorion was essentially non-adhesive. They measured 1.07 - 1.33mm by 2.03 - 3.78mm, and were attached in a cluster to solid objects. Their oil globules were small and numerous. The eggs hatched 3 – 8d after fertilisation, at temperatures of 20.2 - 29.0oC. The length of larvae at hatching varied from 3.44 - 4.15mm. The prolarval stage terminated approximately 61?2d after hatching at temperatures between 19.0 and 29.0°C, when the larvae measured 5.30 - 5.85mm in length. Opercular stripes appeared on juveniles between 12 and 20mm in length, and males and females were mature at 44.7 and 49.0mm respectively. Adult males often had a pronounced bulge on top of the head. The longest fish from the western population was 99.0mm. Fecundity varied from 284 to 1300 eggs. The gonosomatic index of females and males ranged from 1.26 - 11.74 and 0.18 - 2.16 respectively. The mean length of fish reared in an aquarium measured 33.0 and 50.0mm at one and two years old, respectively. Eggs, larvae, and breeding biology are compared with other Murray Darling species. The breeding biology of Mogurnda species in Australia is discussed which emphasises the taxonomic confusion.