... their effects can be beneficial. The positive effects of pests arise when they become deeply embedded in ecological communities and are involved in webs of direct and indirect interactions with other species. In this paper, I first outline the concepts of direct and indirect interactions, and then describe two...

... and abundance have been linked to the direct and indirect impacts of pastoralism. Grazing by livestock is the main “direct” impact of pastoral activity and has resulted in widespread changes in habitat structure and a decrease in primary productivity. The loss in primary productivity may have reduced...

... and Reptile School providing detailed information on the biology, identification and survey methods. Ethics and licensing are components of both courses. The varied educational level of attendees provides a significant challenge to course teachers. Direct contact with live animals is very important...

... in the composition of microbial communities on algal surfaces and can be induced via exposure to ambient seawater microbes and cultures of putative pathogens. Direct consequences of bleaching include reductions in algal growth and fecundity. Bleaching also has indirect ecological effects on the alga, with bleached...

... In 1996, Government directives began a transition to conform logging in Western Australia's State forests to principles of ecologically sustainable forest management (ESFM). To place this in a historical context, we reviewed the history of the logging of jarrah Eucalyptus marginata forests...

... in the insect world, and this too adds a further facet to their conservation. Additionally, insect populations are often highly dynamic, with great vagility and population variability. Conservation of this complexity can only be done at the level of the landscape, so as to incorporate all the interactions...

... brought classrooms to within 10 m of roosting flying-foxes. This occurred despite NSW legislation and government policy that protected animals in the camp from direct harm. There was no mechanism to protect either the flying-foxes or the local community from the conflict that arose in the areas...