ABSTRACT For thousands of years, the water-finding abilities of the Australian dingo ( Canis dingo ), has assisted human survival in one of the most extreme, arid environments on earth. In addition to their contribution to Traditional Aboriginal society as a guardian, living blanket, hunting assistant and companion, the dingo’s role as intermediary between the earth’s surface and the river systems that flow beneath the continent is legendary. Both the ancestral/mythical dingo and the contemporary dingo are attributed with having assisted people in the location of aquifers, billabongs, inland lakes. They guided people safely across hundreds of kilometers of desert, locating the places where water sources reach up closest to the earth’s surface from the underground lakes and waterways that flow beneath the continent. The dingo’s status in Aboriginal culture is celebrated in the naming of waterholes, soaks, river systems and aquifers. This paper follows the path of the ancient dingo, tracing how, as a cultural keystone species, dingoes have shaped human society and belief systems, encouraging cultures of reciprocity and laws of protection for vital resources. Post-colonization, these traditions have not been recognized outside of Aboriginal communities, and this loss of cultural heritage comes at great cost to the Australian environment, biodiversity and the health and preservation of vital resources.

ABSTRACT With the passage of time, first-hand accounts of the Thylacine ( Thylacinus cynocephalus ) are now rare, and those that challenge the established historical narrative, rarer still. Recent recollections by one of the last living witnesses to a Thylacine capture have enabled us to piece together the life history of one of the last captive specimens. This account raises important questions over the accepted sequencing of the final two Thylacines on display at the Hobart Zoo.

ABSTRACT This paper a) gives an historical view of national parks and other protected areas since the 19th century, b) gives a history of national parks and nature reserves in NSW, c) shows how recent has been the recognition that fauna conservation depends upon protected areas, d) reflects how much has been achieved in the last 50 years, and e) considers what must be done to stop an ever–increasing list of our fauna becoming extinct, including identifying the crucial role of scientific study in this endeavour. The evolving debate of what burden protected areas should carry in conserving the nation's fauna is a central theme of this paper. The First World Congress on National Parks in 1962 produced ideals that are inspiring, connected and ecological. What was not apparent in 1962 was the scale of the problem of conserving the flora and fauna of the world. I present the case that the principles of protecting areas, fauna conservation and scientific research for nature conservation have been slow to take hold and uneasy in their political relationships as a land use option, but are now beginning to be seen as a key element in conserving a nation's wildlife. Protected areas, whether for wildlife, game, plants, ecosystems or scenery for public enjoyment, are a late competitor for large tracts of land. The historical account shows how distinct African, American, British and Australian protected area development has been, with common threads being how the ideal of protected areas is contested territory, and the linking over time of the concepts of fauna conservation and protected areas. The British story differs markedly from that in the USA and Africa. In 1943, a Nature Reserves Committee was appointed to draw up a rationale and list of National Habitat Reserves and Scientific Areas. Its report led directly to the appointment of the Nature Conservancy in 1949 charged with the establishment of National Nature Reserves, disseminating advice on nature conservation generally, and carrying out the research relevant to those responsibilities. These are crucial dates for the origin of nature reserves in Britain, the important role of research, and the central position of an ecological outlook on nature conservation, rather than the more limited label of preservation. Protected areas in Australia are often under–estimated, both for wildlife research and as havens for fauna populations, and for the research value of protected areas to conserve biodiversity in NSW. The published articulation of these values, and specifically the value of National Parks and Nature Reserves for research, is hard to find except in the recent literature. A review of the last four decades of published papers shows how much has changed in this short time. Given the long history of resistance to establishing protected areas, Australia's fauna is at an ever–increasing risk of extinction as natural habitats are relentlessly lost to economic growth and a rising human population. The problem, as I read the historical record, is that although we are learning fast, the loss of species, landscapes and ecosystems is happening even faster. From the First World Parks Congress in 1962 to today, the interpretation of the value of the national parks for fauna conservation remains contested, but the weight of historical and scientific opinion is ever stronger on the need for protected areas for conserving fauna.

Few freshwater aquatic species have ecological traits that deal with the vagaries of flow in ephemeral tropical rivers. In northern Australia, the tropical freshwater crab, Austrothelphusa transversa (von Martens, 1868) is a conspicuous species that occupies seasonal rivers, where it is thought to estivate in underground burrows while waiting for summer rain. During a survey in seasonal river catchments the first photographic evidence was obtained of an estivating female crab containing 42 crablets under the abdomen plate. Uncovering this female with crablets suggests that egg development progressing to crablets occurs during the dry season estivation when crabs are underground and no water exists in river channels; if this is the case then this female crab may have been waiting for rain, to emerge and successfully continue the life cycle in water. Since 2012 the southern Gulf of Carpentaria has experienced below average rainfall, contributing to no or short flow periods over most of the landscape. In light of modelled climate change (which predicts an increase in the number of years with low rainfall in northern Australia), along with intensification of agriculture development, it is postulated that reduced access to water might become a regular challenge for this crab species. With more data the IUCN Red List status (Least concern) for this species might need further review.

The Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus naturally occurs from the Indian subcontinent to the northern Malay Peninsula. Its anthropogenic spread also encompasses Australia, Japan, the southern Malay Peninsula, Singapore, Florida, California, 11 islands in the Indian Ocean, and Oahu, Hawaii. The earliest known introduction occurred in Sydney in 1865, with subsequent releases in the 1900's leading to establishment. It was first released in Melbourne, Victoria in 1915, with a population establishing in the late 1950's. Sightings have been reported in Coffs Harbour since 1972, forming a population in the Northern Rivers region. There has also been a small population in Mackay, Queensland since 1983. Red-whiskered Bulbuls had been recorded in South Australia between the 1940's and 1980's, but did not proliferate and are no longer present. The main ecological impact identified is the dispersal of exotic weeds, although evidence in Australia remains anecdotal. There has also been preliminary evidence of interspecific competition on islands and predation of nestlings. While aesthetically appreciated and a predator of some invertebrate pests, it causes crop failure in soft-fruit and citrus orchards and damage to garden plants. Impacts should be further investigated to justify management directions. Eradication in Australia may be achievable due to populations being mostly restricted to settled areas.

This paper gives an overview of research into the history and use of donkeys in Australia. Although the role that other draught animals played in the opening up and economy of the colony has been recorded, that of the donkey has not been systematically researched before. The first three donkeys arrived in New South Wales in 1793 but they were not greatly used by Europeans to colonise the land in Eastern Australia. They came into wider use with the opening up of Central and Western Australia in the 1860s and were extensively employed until the late 1930s for freight haulage in more inhospitable areas where horse and bullock teams perished. When the motorcar finally took over, the teamsters - the men who drove the teams of donkeys - simply set their donkeys free, as they had no wish to shoot them. Conditions were ideal for the donkeys to prosper in their feral state. They are now classified as vermin and shot in the hundreds of thousands. The paper considers social, economic, environmental and ethical issues associated with the introduction and use of donkeys in Australia and identifies parallels with the more general shift in attitudes towards the Australian environment since colonisation.

The external morphology and osteology of the Land Mullet Egernia major is described based on ail available material in Australian museum collections and extant type material. The complex nomenclatural history of this species is discussed. Multivariate analysis of variation in external morphology does not identify any segment of the geographic distribution as distinct, although there is some clinal variation. Available data do not provide evidence for a close relationship with any other Egernia species and the previously identified “ Egernia major ” species group is concluded to have no morphological support. Litter sizes of 3-7 are recorded and reproduction is vernal. The species is omnivorous, with a high frequency of fungi and nocturnal invertebrates in the stomach contents.

The viability of a metamorph anuran can be influenced by its body size and the time it has taken to complete larval development. In a laboratory experiment, we show that the presence of tadpoles of the invasive Cane Toad Rhinella marina causes tadpoles of a native frog (Marbled Frog Limnodynastes convexiusculus ) to metamorphose later and at smaller sizes. These effects may render frog metamorphs more vulnerable to desiccation and predation, but render them less vulnerable to Cane Toads. Marbled Frogs prey upon other anurans, including the highly toxic Cane Toad metamorphs. Small, late-emerging metamorph frogs are unlikely to encounter metamorph toads small enough to ingest; and hence, are less likely to be fatally poisoned by consuming the toxic invader. Developing in the presence of larval Cane Toads thus increases the native taxon's ability to survive the presence of toads postmetamorphosis. Predicting the ecological impacts of an invasive species on native taxa with biphasic life histories (such as most anurans) thus requires information on interactions in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. The expression of phenotypic plasticity in one phase may influence fitness in a subsequent phase, in complex and non-intuitive ways.

Although the rough-scaled python Morelia carinata of north western Australia is one of the most morphologically distinctive python species worldwide, it remains virtually unstudied. Our fieldtrips have increased the number of animals seen in the wild from 2 to 12, and the 5 animals brought into captivity produced 7 clutches totalling 71 viable offspring over a period of 6 years. In this paper we provide quantitative information on reproduction and growth of these captive animals, as well as qualitative information about behaviour and dietary habits. Reflecting their close phylogenetic relationship with green tree pythons Morelia viridis from northeastern Australia, captive rough-scaled pythons are sedentary animals that spend most of their time tightly coiled in arboreal or saxicolous ambush sites. Females produce relatively small clutches of 10 to 14 eggs, which hatch as large, slenderbodied offspring averaging 406 mm snout-vent length (SVL) and 16.9 g in weight. Growth is rapid, with captive males attaining sexual maturity at around 1000 mm SVL and approximately 18 months of age; females mature at 1400 mm and 30 months. Many hatchlings were reluctant to accept mammalian prey unless anuran or avian scent had been added beforehand, suggesting that frogs may be an important dietary component of juvenile snakes in the wild. In turn, frog-eating may render these snakes vulnerable to the imminent invasion of cane toads Rhinella marina into the northwestern Kimberley. Continued maintenance of captive stocks can provide for potential future reintroduction to the wild if toads (or some other threatening process) imperil existing wild populations of rough-scaled pythons.

This review synthesises research on the Pink-tailed Worm-lizard Aprasia parapulchella - a threatened species with life-history traits and habitat and dietary preferences that make it particularly vulnerable to decline. Further information on the ecology of A. parapulchella is required in order to develop effective approaches to conservation and management, particularly given the conservation status of the species. Aprasia parapulchella is a dietary specialist living in the burrows of small ants, the eggs and larvae of which it preys upon. It is late maturing (adult size probably attained in the third or fourth year of life), has a small clutch, is thought to be longlived and has specific habitat preferences. It has a strong association with landscapes that are characterised by outcroppings of lightly-embedded surface rocks. The lizard is associated with a particular suite of ant species and ground cover tending towards open native vegetation (grasses and shrubs) at most sites, but with regional differences. Although the highest densities have been recorded in areas without tree cover, the species has also been found in open-forest and woodland. The relative density of populations and the snout-vent length and weight of specimens reveal regional differences, suggesting that further analysis of the genetic status of the population across its range is warranted. There is still much to learn about the ecology of the species, in particular with respect to movement, breeding, dispersal and the relationship between lizards and ants. Further survey for new populations remains a key priority.

At the time of European settlement, the wetlands of the Clarence River floodplain sustained considerably higher numbers of waterbirds than at present. These wetlands were valuable natural resources for the local Aboriginal people with ducks, geese and swans easily hunted using traditional methods. European settlers displaced the local Aboriginal people from the floodplain in the 1800s, although through to the 1960s waterbirds were common food items for local residents with hunting being a popular sporting pursuit. European settlement dramatically altered waterbird habitat through the clearing of native vegetation, the introduction of farming and grazing, and hydrological alteration. The hydrology of the floodplain wetlands was altered initially by manually-constructed shallow drains but later, and more drastically, by a flood mitigation scheme that involved the construction of deep drains and channels affecting not only surface, but also sub-surface, hydrology. The subsequent ecological impacts included a dramatic decline in waterbird numbers and depletion of functional habitat. Only very recently have there been methodical efforts to restore locally important habitat, albeit incidentally to other restoration goals. On-going restoration efforts have focussed on modifying hydrological regimes on agricultural land for the control of acid sulphate discharge and creation of fish passage, although most recently a wetland area was purchased by government for nature conservation purposes.

The nesting behaviour of two Australian freshwater turtles, the broad-shelled river turtle Chelodina expansa and the Brisbane river turtle Emydura signata are described. Both species nest during, or soon after rain. C. expansa nests exclusively during the day while E. signata as a preference for nesting at night but can be found nesting during the day. C. expansa nests 30-300 m from the water's edge usually after walking up a hill, while E. signata typical nests just 2-10 m from the water's edge. Both species dig their nests exclusively with their hind legs by alternative scooping movements. Nest excavation takes from 20 to 180 minutes depending on how hard the soil is compacted. Typically some water is released from the cloaca during the nesting process but the role of this behaviour remains unknown. C. expansa uses a ‘body-slamming’ behaviour to compact the nest plug at the end of nesting but this behaviour was not observed in E. signata.

This paper traces the post World War II debate over kangaroo management, and how the various parties have managed the issue to arrive at the current levels of kangaroo harvest, with particular reference to NSW and the transition of policy from culling kangaroos as an agricultural pest to a commercial harvest as the principal driver. Kangaroos have been variously represented in the debate as pests, a commercial resource, an iconic Australian symbol, and endangered species. In 1958, kangaroos narrowly survived a pastoralists' vote to list them as noxious animals. If it had passed, and been agreed upon by State Cabinet, it would have made it compulsory for landowners to rid their land of these animals because they would then have been noxious species. Over 1964 and 1965, culled kangaroo populations crashed during drought. It showed that for kangaroo management to be effective in the long-term the original tenet in the Fauna Protection Act 1948 of kangaroos as pests had to be re-interpreted and, in Allen Strom's words: “kangaroos needed to be managed on a sustained yield basis.” Fifty years later the debate is better informed, with a sustainable population management approach, which includes commercial harvesting. In a statement on the subject in 1983, Neil Shepherd provided the certainty as to what was underpinning the kangaroo management program at that time: “Commercial harvesting is sanctioned by wildlife authorities to reduce the impact of kangaroos on agriculture. Management for conservation is the primary objective and the harvest industry has no right to exist independent of the conservation program.” He also concluded that farming kangaroos was not feasible, and pointed out that they have never been intensively farmed. What was needed by the late 1980s was an effective advocate who could put the material together into a persuasive argument to move the public sentiment from pest management to sustained yield. If it had been attempted 10-20 years earlier, Shepherd observed, it would have been unsuccessful because the science to support the proposition, the research driven by Graeme Caughley from the mid 1970s to 1987, had not been undertaken. An advocate of a change in policy was Gordon Grigg. His proposal, first published in 1987, was to substitute kangaroo harvesting for sheep farming on the sheep rangelands as an answer to both widespread land degradation and sustainable kangaroo management. Grigg later gave it the epigrammatic description of “sheep replacement therapy”.The modern debate now centres on matters of ethics and animal welfare on the one hand, and conservation management policies on the other. A report in 1998 into the Commercial Utilisation of Australia Native Wildlife concluded “that it is a legitimate activity of the Federal Government to support an export industry based on the commercial harvesting of kangaroos, which is being prejudiced overseas by public campaigns based on false information.” Peter Singer, in 2005, took the view that “Those who see kangaroos only as a resource, overlook the ethical aspects of how we are treating other sentient beings.” In their 2006 review of the NSW Kangaroo Management Program, Olsen and Low concluded that shooting remains the most economical, humane and cost-effective way to cull/harvest kangaroos; rainfall is the overriding driver of population density and that the current harvest strategy (15-17%) appears to be achieving its current twin goals of sustainable use of natural resources and the maintenance of viable populations of the four harvested species. Thus the debate continues. However, this history of the debate on the commercial harvesting of kangaroos has revealed that it has been long running, filled with strong arguments and strong players, and that science and policy have had a long struggle to assimilate the needs of the other. The 2007-2011 NSW kangaroo management plan is titled New South Wales Commercial Kangaroo Harvest Management Plan . This bold title acknowledges the change in management outlook from damage mitigation to sustainable use. The historical record also demonstrates that the current NSW management plan, which is underpinned by an objective to manage a sustainable kangaroo harvest, is the outcome of a long and public debate.