Grey kangaroo populations in south-eastern Australia can increase to the point where they are considered overabundant. In such populations, the management problem is too often oversimplified as high population density. A more useful approach is to identify the key, underlying problems associated with kangaroos and set clear objectives for them. Kangaroo-related problems may include road accidents, attacks on people, zoonotic disease, contamination of water supplies, lost crop production and competition with threatened species, as well as affects on kangaroos themselves, such as poor body condition and heavy juvenile mortality. Once specific problems have been identified, managers should set objectives that are clear and realistic. Population targets then have to be set for the density required to meet management objectives. Currently, some approaches to this are inadequate: basing targets by comparing density with other populations ignores site-specific differences in productivity and habitat structure; calculating the ecological carrying capacity considers only food resources and neglects other effects; constructing grazing exclosures provides no data on intermediate densities. The relationship between the problem and the population can be explored by analysing time-series data, but is most effectively elucidated by experimentally manipulating population density and measuring responses in the level of the problem.

This paper outlines the problems associated with keeping dingoes as pets, and describes the lobbying efforts undertaken by the Australian Dingo Conservation Association (ADCA) to address the noxious status of the dingo and recent legislative changes that allow dingoes to be kept as pets in New South Wales. It also describes the efforts that have been made to conserve the dingo and to highlight the threat of hybridisation that is swamping the gene pool of dingo populations across Australia. There are four problems associated with the management of dingoes in the wild and in captivity under the new legislation. This paper outlines the problems and offers some solutions for the future of the dingo, and describes some of the very valuable work which has been done by dingo conservation groups. It is vitally important that any remnant wild populations are maintained and captive breeding programs are continued to deliver a positive outcome for the future of the dingo.

The Silver Gull population in the Greater Melbourne Area has expanded dramatically in response to the availability of abundant anthropogenic foods. The activities of large numbers of gulls lead to a range of conflicts with human interests. These conflicts and examples of their economic costs are described and strategies for their mitigation are discussed.

Coastal biodiversity is complex due to the large numbers of species interacting in space and time at many different scales. Because little is known of the invertebrates which make up most of this biodiversity, conserving biodiversity is a difficult task. Robust analytical techniques must be developed that can measure natural changes in biodiversity before one will be able to assess whether biodiversity is changing in response to anthropogenic disturbances. Many attempts have been made to reduce the complexity of a species x sample data-matrix, which is the basic measure of biodiversity, into simpler measures, which are more amenable to analysis. These are not generally successful because they capture only part of the variation in assemblages of organisms. This paper introduces the basic components into which measures of biodiversity can be “decomposed” to allow existing methods of analyses and ecological knowledge to understand measures of and changes to biodiversity.

Keeping native animals as pets has recently been proposed as a new strategy to enhance the conservation of wildlife in Australia. In this paper we critically examine the arguments put by the proponents of a native animal pet industry, discuss potential problems associated with it and cover a range of important related issues. The primary argument for a native animal pet industry is that it will generate major benefits for the conservation of Australia's biodiversity. However, the use of native animals as pets (and associated captive-breeding and re-introduction programs) will only ever focus on a small subset of species, will be unable to address larger biodiversity conservation issues, and will be unlikely to make more than a very limited contribution to nature conservation in Australia. Other approaches such as setting aside reserves and off-reserve conservation strategies such as landscape restoration will be far more important for nature conservation. Yet, a native animal pet industry has the potential to divert funds from these important activities, and may possibly even reduce public appreciation of the critical need for them. We provide a range of reasons why native animals are unlikely to replace domestic animals as pets. We also raise concerns about animal welfare and other issues that could flow from keeping native animals as pets. These include (among others):- potential for a significant incidence of stress-related and husbandry-related diseases, problems with access to appropriate husbandry and veterinary care, and the potential for inappropriate breeding to select particular anatomical traits. Keeping native animals as pets also has the potential to:- transmit disease to wild populations of the same species, transmit disease to other species in close contact, and spread disease from animals to humans (zoonoses). These problems have major negative implications not only for wild populations of Australian native animals, but also for human health in this country. It is essential these issues are fully addressed prior to the further development and promotion of the concept of a native animal pet industry. Indeed, for the establishment of such an industry to be justified, there must be substantial positive conservation outcomes for wild populations. It must also be demonstrated that any new industry would not have any negative effect on the status of wild populations.

Chemical prospecting for pharmaceuticals in natural organisms (bioprospecting) has been both championed as a tool for conservation and criticised for not being environmentally sustainable. However, there has been little attempt to address the ways that bioprospecting could contribute to conservation if undertaken in an ecologically sustainable manner. Bioprospecting can provide financial benefits, but these are unlikely to advance natural resource management unless contractual agreements granting access to biodiversity specify that a percent of the fees and royalties must be used to fund conservation projects. A more likely positive outcome for conservation is that bioprospecting provides funding opportunities for the rapid documentation of biological diversity. If representative specimens of each sampled taxa are lodged in accredited institutes, a useful resource will be available for other research projects. Bioprospectors can also emphasize the need for conservation by increasing the community's appreciation for marine biodiversity. Nevertheless, bioprospecting will only be compatible with conservation objectives if it can be shown to have no negative impacts on the environment. There is some evidence that marine organisms have been over-collected for natural products research, although it is currently difficult to assess the impacts of marine bioprospecting due to the fact that the sample quantity and abundance of the target organism are rarely published in the scientific literature. It is apparent that research on the natural history and ecology of target organisms needs to be assigned greater priority. Bioprospecting could be undertaken with minimal impact on abundant species with broad geographic distributions because modern technologies permit the preliminary identification of bioactive compounds from small samples (<100g). However, environmental impact assessment may be necessary for the recollection of organisms prior to complete chemical characterisation and pharmacological evaluation. Once a useful compound has been identified several options are available for large-scale production, including chemical synthesis and aquaculture. By adopting a precautionary approach, new marine bioresources could be developed in a sustainable manner. Consequently, bioprospecting does have potential to contribute biodiversity research and the conservation of natural resources.

Numbers of most invertebrates are variable. Processes affecting their abundances operate at many spatial and temporal scales. Documenting biodiversity is therefore made complex and appropriate scales are not obvious. Processes at small scales (e.g., behaviour), intermediate scales (e.g., recruitment) and large scales (e.g., wave-forces) are illustrated here for intertidal species. The information needed to describe patterns of diversity in complex assemblages is defined. A novel method of analysing variability in diversity is described to unravel complexity and to quantify changes and differences in diversity of invertebrates. Without appropriate information, biodiversity cannot be described, let alone explained, managed or conserved.

Evidence of Grey-headed Flying-fox Pteropus poliocephalus decline and its listing as a vulnerable species in May 2001 means it can no longer be managed simply as a pest species. A 1988 statewide community survey of flying-foxes undertaken by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service following their protection in 1986 provides useful information that can assist current management. Community perceptions must be understood and incorporated in practice if management decisions about flying-foxes are to be effective. In 1988 flying-fox sightings ( n =1303) were found to be widespread across NSW and more than half of the respondents had observed them. Twenty-three camps were identified in NSW, many located near water and human habitation. Flying-foxes were present throughout much of NSW during January while in July they were recorded only along the coastal areas of northern NSW and within the Sydney Metropolitan area. Forty-four per cent of country respondents registered a problem with flying-foxes compared to twenty-eight per cent in the non-urban Sydney Metropolitan area and only four per cent in the urban Sydney Metropolitan area. In both country NSW and non-urban Sydney Metropolitan, most orchardists surveyed recorded a problem. Flying-foxes eating fruit was a common problem identified by respondents from all areas, but aspects of their presence (such as noise and mess) was a greater problem for respondents in the urban Sydney Metropolitan area. Country NSW respondents more commonly observed flying-foxes on domestic fruit trees than on either native or orchard trees. Even though it was well known that orchardists had a problem with flying-foxes, it was not anticipated that domestic growers had a problem as well. Thus management of flying-foxes must consider their impact on domestically grown fruits alongside commercial fruit production. This points to an overemphasis in management of the commercial aspects of flying-foxes, when other community perceptions are present.

Invasive animals include introduced and native animals that have or may become overabundant and pose threats to agriculture, the environment or human health and safety. Following its successful bid to the Australian Government's Cooperative Research Centres Program, a new Invasive Animals CRC commenced its operations in 2006 specifically to deal with these threats. The IA CRC will focus on helping to solve invasive animal (vertebrate) pest problems through the development of commercial outputs, integrated strategies and business partnerships that bring together national and international skills in science, management, commerce and industry. Comprising a large number of members (41), the IA CRC will assemble critical mass to address an Australasian problem and it will bring together private and public land managers to integrate approaches to invasive animal management. This unique partnership will deliver the means to deal with existing high profile invasive animal pests as well as those that have the potential to cause catastrophic impacts in the future. Outcomes will help solve the prominent and costly impacts of invasive species on agricultural, environmental and social values.

Australia has at least 70 bat species and these constitute one-quarter of Australia’s mammals. In the tropics this ratio increases to one-third, and in southeastern coastal forests it is up to 40%. Some rainforest tree species appear to be dependent upon flying foxes to disperse their fruits and ensure their long-term survival. A “raiders versus residents” model of seed dispersal, shown in Spectacled Flying Foxes Pteropus conspicillatus , is important in increasing the success of seedling survival because the residents force the raiders to leave their territories which causes seeds to be dropped distant from the parent tree. However, colonies of Spectacled Flying Foxes appear to have declined in number and size over the last decade, probably due to their status as unprotected fauna in Queensland. There is evidence from tropical American forests for the concept of “pivotal” tree species, the conservation of which appears to be deterministic in the conservation of rainforest and fruit bats as a mutualistic system. Pivotal tree species in Australian rainforests must be identified urgently and preserved. Until the present data for bat distribution are centralized, then analysed to search for shortcomings and to target data-deficient areas for survey, insectivorous bats will always be neglected in forest conservation arguments. There is evidence that aged trees with roost hollows are a limiting resource for many species. Gould’s Long-eared bat Nyctophilus gouldi is an indicator of forest quality, since it only roosts in unlogged gullies and within them, only in trees of 80 cm diameter. Since hollows in eucalypt trees may take 100 years to form, a short logging rotation time of 20–40 years will have a detrimental effect upon many species of forest bats. From a forest bat conservation point of view it is vital to acknowledge the importance of retaining at least some mature forest trees during logging operations. There is an awareness of many conservation problems for forest bats but there is much difficulty in finding solutions. These difficulties are compounded by the size of Australia and a lack of scientific expertise in this area.

Wildlife management is, in our view, as much about education, and managing people's attitudes, as it is about the science of populations of animals. The successful koala management program for Victoria, outlined by Peter Menkhorst, has only been possible because of his firm grasp, and that of his colleagues, of the divergent attitudes towards koalas. Among the many benefits provided to humans by the wildlife resource, we have tackled just one value in this book - recreational. Wildlife can also cause problems for people. Among the negative values of wildlife, we selected but one topic, namely roadkill. The plenary sessions to this forum were filled with interesting details and some provocative challenges, such as that by Des Cooper, “…this discussion is really being conducted with a particular set of assumptions, which are assumptions made by rich, well-to-do people who live in cities…” We need much more of such cut-and-thrust to avoid the narrow viewpoint that is possible from the comfort of mid-city life. On the other hand, do we really think that those in immediate contact with a wildlife problem are always the best informed to manage our wildlife? Arthur White delicately touched a subject that shows just how fast matters are changing. He entitled his paper, “Can I touch that frog?” He asked, “With limited exposure to the natural world will future generations still be prepared to defend global ecosystems?” From the gentle approach of whale-watching and the attention to seals and dolphins, and the careful research that underpinned all the recommendations, to the as yet nearly-impenetrable problem of roadkill, the issue that is central is that of communication. We are not isolated in Australia from world problems, but the converse also applies - our solutions and our communication endeavours can make an international contribution. Harry Recher posed the question in his foreword: “How do you make people care and therefore willing to share with others, and other species?” The authors in this book have made a positive contribution to seeking answers to that question.

Birds are useful for testing ecological theory, monitoring environmental change, and establishing the basis of a national conservation programme. However, there are difficulties in estimating the numbers of terrestrial birds. Observer error and differences in spatial and temporal detectability are problems common to the census of birds throughout the world. Asynchronous reproduction and a high level of communal or co-operative nesting are special problems encountered in censuses of Australia’s terrestrial avifauna. Despite these unique features and the relatively recent use of bird censusing procedures in Australia, it appears that the census methods developed in the Northern Hemisphere are equally valid in Australia, suffering only from the same sources of error encountered in their use in America and Europe. This paper reviews the history of terrestrial bird censuses in Australia, describes the special problems encountered by Australian workers, and shows how counts of the terrestrial avifauna have been used to test ecological theory and develop conservation and management programmes for the continent’s biota. It concludes with some simple guidelines which, if followed, will facilitate the use and comparison of census results between projects and localities.

In using the term ‘dark age’ to reflect on the kind of cultural world we find ourselves in at this time, I am invoking analogies with various times and places when old certainties are moving into a state of collapse, but a new culture has not yet emerged to offer moral and social cohesion. Our current moment - when modernity has reached and surpassed its limits - is such a time. In spite of a solid history of insightful analyses of the problems with western conceptions of humanity, and numerous calls for a revisioning of the human, our societies go on as if business as usual were justifiable. The absence of the humanities within wider discourses of ecological degradation, including extinctions, is part of our current problem. I conclude with some thoughts on how the status of flying-foxes in Queensland reveals discursive and physical violence, and offers a glimmer of some solutions. At stake is our struggle to revision ourselves as participatory, complementary members of a wider earth community.

Computers are increasingly being employed to extend data from surveys of forest fauna across unsurveyed areas, using models relating species occurrence or population density to mapped environmental attributes. This chapter examines current issues and problems associated with this methodology: avoiding and overcoming bias in survey data used to derive computer-based models selecting an appropriate modelling technique incorporating spatial analysis into models testing and refining predictions