ABSTRACT Virtual wildlife fencing presents as a cost-effective measure for roadkill mitigation, which aids in reducing fragmentation of wildlife populations by facilitating safer movement of wildlife across the landscape. In this study, we conducted an audit of a virtual fence installation in south-east Queensland, Australia. We assessed its reliability in flows of traffic and the effect that installation parameters and site conditions had on its effective operation in an urban setting. We made observations on the behavioural response of Eastern Grey Kangaroos Macropus giganteus to the acoustic signals produced by the fence. We found that the fencing activated consistently in response to headlights at dusk and dawn, and when traffic flows were dense, despite considerable variations in the range of installation parameters. However, we identified that the response of the virtual fence to headlights was affected by road curvature and we identified inconsistencies in the timing and pattern of activation in response to traffic. Behavioural observations showed a significant increase in kangaroo vigilance in response to the acoustic signal of the fence when resting or grazing, and kangaroos detected the acoustic signal up to 50 m away. While virtual fencing operates effectively and is a low-cost roadkill mitigation option that can be applied to the urban environment, more research is needed to better understand the effect of its acoustic and visual signals on wildlife behaviour and efficacy in busy urban environments.

ABSTRACT Urban freshwater wetlands have been identified as a potential source of mosquitoes of pest and public health concern in Australia. Mosquitoes most commonly associated with these habitats include Anopheles annulipes , Culex annulirostris , Culex quinquefasciatus , Coquillettidia linealis and Mansonia uniformis . However, adaptive management of freshwater wetlands for wildlife conservation or vegetation management can alter the local environmental conditions and may provide opportunities for other mosquito species to exploit these habitats. A series of small wetlands at Sydney Olympic Park, NSW, were drained in spring 2016 and allowed to refill via rainfall to improve conditions for the endangered green and golden bell frog Litoria aurea . Below-average rainfall was experienced that summer and the wetlands did not fully refill until early autumn. Surprisingly, immature stages of the estuarine mosquito, Aedes vigilax , were observed in the freshwater wetlands in exceptional abundances during this period. Adjacent to these freshwater wetlands there are extensive saltmarsh and mangrove habitats where highly abundant populations of Ae. vigilax are common. Observations of use of freshwater habitats by this estuarine mosquito have implications for urban freshwater wetland management and rehabilitation strategies, which currently do not consider the potential pest and public health issues associated with estuarine mosquitoes.

ABSTRACT Long-term monitoring of the Masked Owl Tyto novaehollandiae in a semi-urban landscape before, during and after large-scale habitat removal identified a positive response in breeding activity in the short-term and a change in prey selectivity. Over the longer term, the loss in habitat had a negative impact on site fidelity. A pair of Masked Owls exhibited high fidelity to a particular breeding territory before and during the removal of large areas of habitat within this territory. Breeding success occurred over two consecutive seasons during the removal of known habitat and other disturbance events at which time the pair and their offspring were observed to exploit disturbed habitat and newly created forest edges in search of prey. Breeding activity was supported by an increased dietary focus on introduced rodents and other mammals displaced during habitat clearing. Fidelity to the breeding territory became more irregular post-disturbance and after two years the territory appeared to be abandoned. This response may suggest that the cumulative loss of habitat for established pairs as a result of urban expansion is likely to adversely affect reproductive success and site fidelity in the longer term.

ABSTRACT Urbanisation is altering local flora and fauna, but urban greenspaces can provide refugia for a variety of taxa. However, we often lack basic biodiversity information (e.g., species richness) for these urban greenspaces. Citizen science projects are continuously improving our understanding of ecology at broad temporal and spatial scales. But, many conservation-relevant decisions are idiosyncratic and made at small management scales (e.g., local government). Given a general bias of citizen science data towards areas with large human populations, citizen scientists are best placed to contribute to improving our understanding of the biodiversity within cities and urban greenspaces. We introduce the Greenspace Bird Calculator: a web-app aimed at enhancing our collective knowledge of bird diversity in urban greenspaces. Users of the web-app could be land managers seeking to understand the bird diversity in the greenspaces they manage. It is built in a reproducible workflow, allowing anyone to delineate a greenspace and submit it to the web-app administrator, receiving an output comprising the greenspace’s total bird diversity. The Greenspace Bird Calculator web-app provides an automated tool to utilise existing eBird citizen science data to calculate species richness for urban greenspaces globally. Critically, the GBC web-app statistically assesses available data that otherwise would be unlikely to be considered by decision-makers. This web-app is an example of the evolution of citizen science, whereby the data collected has been analysed to allow accessible interpretation and inclusion into urban greenspace management and planning.

ABSTRACT Surveys were conducted for the Giant Burrowing Frog Heleioporus australiacus within 50 km of Nowra, on the south coast of New South Wales using a variety of methods. Thirty-eight 250 m transects were surveyed at night for 30 min each and 0–12 adult frogs were detected during these searches. Additional diurnal searches for tadpoles proved to be the most efficient method to detect the species and locate breeding sites. Of 102 sites surveyed, fragmented populations were found at 27 by the presence of tadpoles and adult frogs. The vegetation at these sites was woodland and open forest with a dense shrublayer of heath, but was often ecotonal. Forty-six percent of the sites were within 100 m of cliff edges/waterfalls. The lithology of sites where the frog was found varied from Hawkesbury, Nowra and Snapper Point sandstones. The exception was a population south of Ulladulla that occurs on undifferentiated sediments, but at that site exposed sandstone and a sandy overlay was present. The location of tadpoles indicated that adults were highly selective of the section of drainage line used for breeding. Often these sites consisted of a few small pools in non-perennial creeks. Breeding behaviour was associated with late summer and autumn rain, but in some sites reproduction did not occur annually. Based on distribution and habitat preference, the region has five discrete populations. Urban development has fragmented populations.

ABSTRACT Despite their conspicuousness within urban environments, the ecology of commensal species is poorly understood. Urban environments are thought to provide abundant foraging and shelter resources for commensal species such as Black Rats Rattus rattus , but these assumptions are rarely tested. In this study, we tested whether Black Rats in the inner western suburbs of Sydney were shelter limited by placing piles of disused railway sleepers within small (<1 ha) areas of regenerating bushland surrounded by houses and railway lines. The piles of railway sleepers were intended to provide refuge habitat to small mammals and were monitored for 123 days using motion-sensitive cameras. Rat activity was positively associated with sites that had the log piles added, with no rat activity recorded at any of the control sites (without log piles), despite the presence of predators (domestic cats and foxes) at all sites. Rats rapidly investigated the log piles (mean time to first rat observation ± SE: 27.25 ± 14.34 days), but were only recorded intermittently over the monitoring period, suggesting that they did not permanently inhabit the sites. Our results suggest that black rats are likely to be limited by refuge opportunities within urban areas, and will rapidly investigate shelter opportunities. Removing available shelter habitat is likely to be an effective means of reducing rat populations within urban areas, particularly adjacent to bushland sites that are vulnerable to black rat invasion.

The bush stone-curlew Burhinus grallarius is listed as ‘Near threatened’ on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. In NSW, bush stone-curlews are listed as ‘Endangered’ under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 . The present study focused on bush stone-curlew populations throughout the central coast of NSW and the aim of this study was to develop an inductive spatial model in Geographical Information System (GIS) of suitable bush stone-curlew habitat based on historical sightings and empirical data. To develop the models, micro-habitat data from 30 sites where bush stone-curlews have been recorded were combined with broad historical habitat maps between Gosford and Port Stephens. The habitat data and developed spatial models indicated that bush stonecurlew sightings are associated with trees dominated by Casuarina glauca and Syncarpia glomulifera . In terms of broad habitat classifications, bush stone-curlews are more likely to be sighted in wet sclerophyll forests (towards Gosford) and dry sclerophyll forests and saline wetlands (Port Stephens). The spatial model developed for this endangered bird will help direct conservation efforts to maintain and promote habitat in areas where urban development is rapidly increasing.

Despite 200 years of European settlement, the Hawkesbury-Nepean catchment sustains a rich and diverse fauna. This is a consequence of extensive sandstone environments largely unsuited for development that escaped the extensive habitat modifications affecting the fauna of the grassy woodlands on the Cumberland Plain and Southern Tablelands. The most significant impacts followed the clearing and fragmentation of the vegetation for agriculture. Changed fire regimes, the naturalization of exotic plants and animals, and disease were also factors in the decline of native birds and mammals. Data on frogs and reptiles are limited, but some reptiles have declined in abundance in association with the loss of habitats. Not all native species have been adversely affected by European settlement and a number of birds have increased in abundance and extended their range within the catchment. Agricultural clearing and urban development have also affected aquatic ecosystems. The pre-European environment was apparently characterized by creek and river systems subjected to periodic floods, but with clear water, low nutrient levels, and clean sandly or rocky substrates. Increased nutrient levels, turbidity and siltation associated with urban and rural effluents, land clearing, foreshore erosion and river bed mining has reduced the extent of seagrass communities in the lower Hawkesbury and changed the substrate of rivers and the estuary. Mangrove communities have expanded. Other impacts on aquatic environments include the removal of riparian vegetation and the draining of wetlands, changes of flow regimes, dredging of channels, pollution of water from domestic, industrial and agricultural sources, changes in salinity, eutrophication of wetlands and the over-exploitation of the aquatic fauna. In freshwater creeks and rivers the native fauna has declined in abundance, while introduced species have spread throughout the catchment. In estuarine and marine environments, the fauna associated with clear water, low siltation rates, and seagrass beds has declined and species that were formerly abundant are now scarce. The native terrestrial and aquatic fauna in the catchment will continue to decline with urban expansion and better management of human activities within the catchment is urgently required. Further clearing within the catchment is unwise and existing vegetation remnants (including freshwater wetlands) should be protected from development. This is particularly important on the Cumberland Plain and Southern Tablelands where as distinctive fauna is associated with vegetation remnants and the reserve system is inadequate. Similarly provision needs to be made for minimum freshwater flows into the Hawkesbury-Nepean estuary. Nutrient removal from sewage, control of stormwater runoff, and better management of agricultural chemicals, fertilizers and mining within the catchment is necessary to restore water quality. Foreshoes should be revegetated. Most importantly, urban expansion and population growth within the catchment should be restricted.

Drones are a modern alternative to manned aircraft for aerial surveys, however approaching wildlife with drones may still cause disturbance. Understanding the factors influencing animal responses to drone flights is fundamental for informing guidance on lowest-impact flight practices. We reviewed scientific literature on drone flights conducted to approach wildlife and collated and quantified references to factors that should be considered in the development of guidelines and policies. The most referenced controllable factors were approach distance, noise emissions and airspeed. Other frequently referenced controllable factors included drone type, take-off distance, flight pattern, pilot experience and competence, whether consecutive flights were conducted and flight duration. The most referenced environmental factors were animal taxa, biological state of animals and ambient noise, followed by whether conspecifics are present, weather variables, habitat variables, whether animals have received previous exposure to anthropogenic settings, animals’ behaviour prior to drone flights and whether predators are present. Policies and protocols that address these factors have an increased probability of minimising disturbance of drone flights. The variability in animal responses across different taxa, different ways drone flights are performed and the different circumstances they are deployed in highlights the need for taxa-specific protocols that also account for geographical and biological variations.

ABSTRACT Flying-fox camps in urban areas are a contentious wildlife management issue. Since 2012, Grey-headed Flying-foxes Pteropus poliocephalus have regularly occupied two camps in Batemans Bay, New South Wales (NSW). At one site, the Water Gardens, impacts on adjacent residents and businesses occur when animals roost near the reserve boundaries. During March–July 2016, a large influx of flying-foxes arrived, causing the camps to spread into neighbouring residential, recreational and industrial areas. Prior to this, impacts had been mitigated through vegetation clearing to create buffer zones and residential subsidies for mitigation equipment and services. The influx warranted additional measures such as a dispersal program and further vegetation removal, which were expedited by the Commonwealth Government granting a National Interest Exemption under section 158 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and the NSW Government committing $2.5 million in funding towards the new measures. These measures moved flying-foxes from key conflict areas but also coincided with flying-fox numbers reducing as local blossom diminished. Ongoing community engagement played an important role in building community resilience to live with this threatened species, which is vital considering that Batemans Bay will likely continue to be an important area for flying-foxes.

ABSTRACT Aubrey Elliott (1910–1943), a passionate ‘bird-man’, lived in the suburb of Tapitallee on the south coast of New South Wales until 1940. During that period he and his brother, Arthur kept notes on the birds in the local area and devised a hide that was mounted on a utility that enabled them to take close-up photographs. To augment his observations Elliott interviewed local residents and collated information on the status of the area’s birds. In 1985 I purchased the property next to where Elliott lived and was given access to his notes. This paper presents a comparison of avifauna in the Tapitallee area between 1926–40 and 1985–2020. During that time there have been changes in the distribution and abundance of many birds. Fourteen species have become locally extinct while 28 have colonised/recolonised the area. Combining Aubrey’s and our data a total of 194 species of bird have been recorded in the area. Dams have been constructed and native vegetation has regrown on the steeper slopes. These actions have expanded the habitat for aquatic and forest dependant species but disadvantaged those that occupy grasslands. The Red Fox Vulpes vulpes colonised the area in 1907 and is implicated in the local extinction of the Bush Stone Curlew Burhinus grallarius. Wildfire in January 2020 burnt a relatively small portion of the Tapitallee area but these fires burnt an extensive area of southern NSW and Victoria. These fires were likely to be responsible for the decline in the numbers of Yellow-faced Honeyeaters Caligavis chrysops and White-naped Honeyeater Melithreptus lunatus migrating north in the autumn of that year.

Balancing coastal urban development with species conservation and habitat protection can be challenging for managers especially where good quality ecological data is lacking. Primary freshwater crabs ( Austrothelphusa species) of the family Gecarcinucidae (formerly Parathelphusidae) that occupy inland creek systems are also present in small coastal areas. In coastal regions, habitat loss in response to urbanisation and transformation of natural water channels to concrete drainage lines is a major threat to coastal crab populations. We provide data showing that one species, A. transversa , still exists in natural creek lines in Townsville, but not in engineered creek channels a little further downstream in some cases. Continued urbanisation means that populations will be under threat as the city continues to expand, transforming further natural creek lines to engineered concrete channels. Whether the absence of crabs in urban channels is due to increased predation from fish present in the permanent water (including noxious Oreochromis mossambicus ), water chemistry differences, increased competition for food and shelter, or simply because this species cannot burrow in concrete channels to complete important lifecycle stages, warrants further investigation. Evidence is also provided that A. transversa coexists in natural waters with another freshwater crab species, the varunid, ( Varuna litterata ). The importance of management strategies for both species is discussed, particularly under continuing habitat squeeze with expanding coastal development.

ABSTRACT Social-ecological system (SES) frameworks offer a way of diagnosing the economic, environmental, and social issues driving human-canid conflict, and can assist in the development and testing of management interventions. SES-based approaches to carnivore management in the context of conflicts with humans are limited and highlight a growing need to develop new initiatives involving a broad spectrum of interested parties. To help identify management opportunities provided by using a SES applied to human-canid conflict, we apply the principles of Elinor Ostrom’s multi-tiered framework and develop a SES relating to dingo management in the Australian rangelands. This SES posits variables influencing management practices for dingoes and identifies key management opportunities. We use the framework to categorise first-tier sub-components of the SES, propose second-tier variables specific to the SES (referring to past history or experiences of relevant actors and government resource policies), and identify pathways or interactions for testing (e.g., the influence of scientific evidence on policy, development of educational packages, uptake of new knowledge, and impact of socio-economic status). The proposed SES demonstrates the potential for such approaches to help resolve human-dingo conflict, highlights variables that may influence dingo management practices, and presents opportunities for testing these variables empirically.

The Koala population in Warringah Shire has declined over the last 50 years with increasing urbanization. Koalas were reported from various localities throughout the Shire in the 1940's, 1950's and 1960's. They now occur only at Barrenjoey Peninsula. Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park and, possibly, Davidson Park State Recreation Area. The colonies at Barrenjoey Peninsula and Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park have both declined in numbers and distribution since the 1970's. On Barrenjoey Peninsula, the main subject of this study, clearing for residential development has steadily reduced the area of forested land from about 705 ha (47% of the Peninsula north of Bungan Beach) in 1946 to about 125 ha (8%) in 1989. The Koala colony on the Peninsula has declined from an estimated 123+ Koalas in 1970 to only about eight Koalas in 1989. The remaining Koalas appear to use several Council bushland reserves as refuges: Angophora Reserve/Hudson Park, Stapleton Park, Careel Headland Reserve, Crown of Newport Reserve and, until 1988, Algona Reserve. The principal food tree on Barrenjoey Peninsula is Grey Gum, Eucalyptus punctata . Other important food trees are Scribbly Gum, E. haemastoma , and Swamp Mahogany, E robusta . These food trees occur in low densities in the reserves compared with their former densities elsewhere on the Peninsula. The reserves have also suffered extensive eucalypt dieback associated with urban runoff, and their eucalypt communities are threatened by expansion of rainforest vegetation and Black She-oak, Allocasuarina littoralis , scrub. The chief threats to continued survival of the Peninsula's Koala colony are further loss of habitat, within as well as outside reserves, and further mortality from dogs, motor vehicles and the disease chlamydiosis. The limited information available suggests that dogs have been the chief cause of mortality on the Peninsula, in contrast to other urban colonies studied, where it has been motor vehicles and chlamydiosis. The incidence of chlamydiosis has been low but may pose a particular threat to the few remaining Koalas. The history of Koalas on Barrenjoey Peninsula illustrates how a carefully planned and managed reserve system is crucial for Koala conservation in urban areas. This must be established in the early stages of regional development The deficiencies of the reserve system on Barrenjoey Peninsula pose enormous difficulties for rehabilitation of the Koala colony now.

ABSTRACT The Pygmy Copperhead Austrelaps labialis is South Australia’s only endemic snake, being native to the Adelaide Mount Lofty Ranges and Fleurieu Peninsula; with an additional allopatric population on Kangaroo Island. Within the AMLR, it inhabits stringybark forests and adjacent dense vegetation, occupying a total area of ~150 km 2 . Here, we document a newly discovered and seemingly isolated population at the north-eastern extent of its known mainland distribution. We visited Lobethal Bushland Park from 2013–2018 and observed snakes of varying age and size, while documenting their ecology and behaviour. In late 2019, the site was decimated by catastrophic wildfire and its persistence here remains unknown. Alongside descriptions of our observations, we suggest measures for the conservation of this vulnerable population in its remnant habitat if it has survived the impacts of wildfire.

The paralysis tick Ixodes holocyclus bites humans, companion animals, and livestock in eastern Australia leading to symptoms that range between negligible and severe. Bandicoots (Family Peramelidae) are commonly cited as the “primary host” of I. holocyclus in the media and blamed for outbreaks of ticks and disease fears, creating conflicts between conservation and tick management. We discuss how evidence for bandicoots being essential to the I. holocyclus life cycle has originated from a small number of papers that were limited in scope. False assumptions of host-specificity have contributed to the extrapolation of studies in one ecosystem, yet no study has sampled the full range of hosts of I. holocyclus to understand the relative role of each species across the entire range of I. holocyclus in relation to health threats. Bandicoots are one of many potential tick hosts but cannot yet be considered the “primary host” of I. holocyclus . Researchers and media should refrain from highlighting bandicoots as the main I. holocyclus host without mentioning caveats, and work towards gaining a better understanding of tick-host interactions across the range of I holocyclus in order to better understand and mitigate public health risks.