There appears to be an increased prevalence and earlier onset of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in persons with spinal cord injury (SCI). Physical inactivity is thought to be a key factor in the increased risk for CVD. Physical inactivity is highly prevalent in persons with SCI, and it appears that activities of daily living are not sufficient to maintain cardiovascular fitness and health. This systematic review examines the current literature regarding the risk for CVD and the effectiveness of varied exercise rehabilitation programs in attenuating the risk for CVD in SCI.

cardiovascular disease, exercise rehabilitation, fitness, glucose homeostasis, lipid lipoproteins, rehabilitation, spinal cord injury
Rick Hansen Spinal Cord Injury Registry. Spinal Cord Injury Facts and Statistics. Vancouver, BC: Rick Hansen Spinal Cord Injury Registry; 2004.
Rick Hansen Spinal Cord Injury, Registry. , 
Spinal Cord Injury Facts and Statistics
, 
2004
Google Scholar
 
ICORD. SCI Facts and Stats. International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries. Available at: http://www.icord.org/sci.html. Accessed September 26, 2003.
Whiteneck GG, Charlifue SW, Frankel HL, et al. Mortality, morbidity, and psychosocial outcomes of persons spinal cord injured more than 20 years ago. Paraplegia. 1992;30(9):617–630.
Mortality, morbidity, and psychosocial outcomes of persons spinal cord injured more than 20 years ago
, 
Paraplegia
, vol. 
30
 (pg. 
617
-
630
)
Bauman WA, Kahn NN, Grimm DR, Spungen AM. Risk factors for atherogenesis and cardiovascular autonomic function in persons with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 1999;37(9):601–616, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3100911).
Spungen, AM. 
Risk factors for atherogenesis and cardiovascular autonomic function in persons with spinal cord injury
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
1999
, vol. 
 (pg. 
601
-
616
)
Google Scholar
 
DeVivo MJ, Black KJ, Stover SL. Causes of death during the first 12 years after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;74(3):248–254.
Causes of death during the first 12 years after spinal cord injury
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, vol. 
74
 (pg. 
248
-
254
)
Yekutiel M, Brooks ME, Ohry A, Yarom J, Carel R. The prevalence of hypertension, ischaemic heart disease and diabetes in traumatic spinal cord injured patients and amputees. Paraplegia. 1989;27(1):58–62.
Carel, R. 
The prevalence of hypertension, ischaemic heart disease and diabetes in traumatic spinal cord injured patients and amputees
, 
Paraplegia
, 
1989
, vol. 
 (pg. 
58
-
62
)
Google Scholar
 
Myers J, Lee M, Kiratli J. Cardiovascular disease in spinal cord injury: an overview of prevalence, risk, evaluation, and management. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2007;86(2):142–152.
Kiratli, J. 
Cardiovascular disease in spinal cord injury: an overview of prevalence, risk, evaluation, and management
, 
Am J Phys Med Rehabil
, 
2007
, vol. 
 (pg. 
142
-
152
)
Google Scholar
 
Groah SL, Weitzenkamp D, Sett P, Soni B, Savic G. The relationship between neurological level of injury and symptomatic cardiovascular disease risk in the aging spinal injured. Spinal Cord. 2001;39(6):310–317, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3101162).
Savic, G. 
The relationship between neurological level of injury and symptomatic cardiovascular disease risk in the aging spinal injured
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
2001
, vol. 
 (pg. 
310
-
317
)
Google Scholar
 
Bauman WA, Raza M, Spungen AM, Machac J. Cardiac stress testing with thallium-201 imaging reveals silent ischemia in individuals with paraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1994;75(9):946–950.
Cardiac stress testing with thallium-201 imaging reveals silent ischemia in individuals with paraplegia
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, vol. 
75
 (pg. 
946
-
950
)
Bauman WA, Raza M, Chayes Z, Machac J. Tomographic thallium-201 myocardial perfusion imaging after intravenous dipyridamole in asymptomatic subjects with quadriplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;74(7):740–744, (doi: 10.1016/0003-9993(93)90036-A).
Tomographic thallium-201 myocardial perfusion imaging after intravenous dipyridamole in asymptomatic subjects with quadriplegia
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, vol. 
74
 (pg. 
740
-
744
)
DeVivo MJ, Krause JS, Lammertse DP. Recent trends in mortality and causes of death among persons with spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80(11):1411–1419,(doi: 10.1016/S0003-9993(99)90252-6).
Lammertse, DP. 
Recent trends in mortality and causes of death among persons with spinal cord injury
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
1999
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1411
-
1419
)
Google Scholar
 
Warburton DE, Nicol CW, Bredin SS. Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence. CMAJ. 2006;174(6):801–809.
Bredin, SS. 
Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence
, 
CMAJ
, 
2006
, vol. 
 (pg. 
801
-
809
)
Google Scholar
 
Jacobs PL, Nash MS. Exercise recommendations for individuals with spinal cord injury. Sports Med. 2004;34(11):727–751, (doi: 10.2165/00007256-200434110-00003).
Nash, MS. 
Exercise recommendations for individuals with spinal cord injury
, 
Sports Med
, 
2004
, vol. 
 (pg. 
727
-
751
)
Google Scholar
 
Schmid A, Halle M, Stutzle C, et al. Lipoproteins and free plasma catecholamines in spinal cord injured men with different injury levels. Clin Physiol. 2000;20(4):304–310, (doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2281.2000.00263.x).
et, al. 
Lipoproteins and free plasma catecholamines in spinal cord injured men with different injury levels
, 
Clin Physiol
, 
2000
, vol. 
 (pg. 
304
-
310
)
Google Scholar
 
Manns PJ, McCubbin JA, Williams DP. Fitness, inflammation, and the metabolic syndrome in men with paraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86(6):1176–1181, (doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2004.11.020).
Williams, DP. 
Fitness, inflammation, and the metabolic syndrome in men with paraplegia
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
2005
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1176
-
1181
)
Google Scholar
 
Elder CP, Apple DF, Bickel CS, Meyer RA, Dudley GA. Intramuscular fat and glucose tolerance after spinal cord injury—a crosssectional study. Spinal Cord. 2004;42(12): 711–716, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3101652).
Dudley, GA. 
Intramuscular fat and glucose tolerance after spinal cord injury—a crosssectional study
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
2004
, vol. 
 (pg. 
711
-
716
)
Google Scholar
 
Bravo G, Guizar-Sahagun G, Ibarra A, Centurion D, Villalon CM. Cardiovascular alterations after spinal cord injury: an overview. Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents. 2004;2(2):133–148, (doi: 10.2174/1568016043477242).
Villalon, CM. 
Cardiovascular alterations after spinal cord injury: an overview
, 
Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents
, 
2004
, vol. 
 (pg. 
133
-
148
)
Google Scholar
 
Eng JJ, Teasell RW, Miller WC, et al. Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation Evidence: method of the SCIRE systematic review. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil. 2007;13(1);1–10.
Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation Evidence: method of the SCIRE systematic review
, 
Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil.
, vol. 
13
 (pg. 
1
-
10
)
Moseley AM, Herbert RD, Sherrington C, Maher CG. Evidence for physiotherapy practice: a survey of the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro). Aust J Physiother. 2002;48(1):43–49.
Maher, CG. 
Evidence for physiotherapy practice: a survey of the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro)
, 
Aust J Physiother
, 
2002
, vol. 
 (pg. 
43
-
49
)
Google Scholar
 
Downs SH, Black N. The feasibility of creating a checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality both of randomised and nonrandomised studies of health care interventions. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1998;52(6):377–384.
Black, N. 
The feasibility of creating a checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality both of randomised and nonrandomised studies of health care interventions
, 
J Epidemiol Community Health
, 
1998
, vol. 
 (pg. 
377
-
384
)
Google Scholar
 
Sackett DL, Straus SE, Richardson WS, Rosenberg W, Haynes RB. Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach EBM. 2nd ed. Toronto, ON: Churchill Livingstone; 2000.
, 
Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach EBM.
Phillips SM, Stewart BG, Mahoney DJ, et al. Body-weight-support treadmill training improves blood glucose regulation in persons with incomplete spinal cord injury. J Appl Physiol. 2004;97(2):716–724, (doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00167.2004).
et, al. 
Body-weight-support treadmill training improves blood glucose regulation in persons with incomplete spinal cord injury
, 
J Appl Physiol
, 
2004
, vol. 
 (pg. 
716
-
724
)
Google Scholar
 
Ditor DS, Macdonald MJ, Kamath MV, et al. The effects of body-weight supported treadmill training on cardiovascular regulation in individuals with motor-complete SCI. Spinal Cord. 2005;43(11):664–673, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3101785).
et, al. 
The effects of body-weight supported treadmill training on cardiovascular regulation in individuals with motor-complete SCI
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
2005
, vol. 
 (pg. 
664
-
673
)
Google Scholar
 
Ditor DS, Kamath MV, MacDonald MJ, et al. Effects of body weight-supported treadmill training on heart rate variability and blood pressure variability in individuals with spinal cord injury. J Appl Physiol. 2005;98(4):1519–1525, (doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01004.2004).
et, al. 
Effects of body weight-supported treadmill training on heart rate variability and blood pressure variability in individuals with spinal cord injury
, 
J Appl Physiol
, 
2005
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1519
-
1525
)
Google Scholar
 
Carvalho DC, Cliquet A Jr. Response of the arterial blood pressure of quadriplegic patients to treadmill gait training. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2005;38(9):1367–1373.
Cliquet A, Jr. 
Response of the arterial blood pressure of quadriplegic patients to treadmill gait training
, 
Braz J Med Biol Res
, 
2005
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1367
-
1373
)
Google Scholar
 
de Carvalho DC, Martins CL, Cardoso SD, Cliquet A. Improvement of metabolic and cardiorespiratory responses through treadmill gait training with neuromuscular electrical stimulation in quadriplegic subjects. Artif Organs. 2006;30(1):56–63, (doi: 10.1111/j.1525-1594.2006.00180.x).
Cliquet, A. 
Improvement of metabolic and cardiorespiratory responses through treadmill gait training with neuromuscular electrical stimulation in quadriplegic subjects
, 
Artif Organs
, 
2006
, vol. 
 (pg. 
56
-
63
)
Google Scholar
 
de Groot PC, Hjeltnes N, Heijboer AC, Stal W, Birkeland K. Effect of training intensity on physical capacity, lipid profile and insulin sensitivity in early rehabilitation of spinal cord injured individuals. Spinal Cord. 2003;41(12):673–679, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3101534).
Birkeland, K. 
Effect of training intensity on physical capacity, lipid profile and insulin sensitivity in early rehabilitation of spinal cord injured individuals
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
2003
, vol. 
 (pg. 
673
-
679
)
Google Scholar
 
Davis GM, Shephard RJ, Leenen FH. Cardiac effects of short term arm crank training in paraplegics: echocardiographic evidence. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1987;56(1):90–96, (doi: 10.1007/BF00696382).
Leenen, FH. 
Cardiac effects of short term arm crank training in paraplegics: echocardiographic evidence
, 
Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol
, 
1987
, vol. 
 (pg. 
90
-
96
)
Google Scholar
 
Davis G, Plyley MJ, Shephard RJ. Gains of cardiorespiratory fitness with arm-crank training in spinally disabled men. Can J Sport Sci. 1991;16(1):64–72.
Shephard, RJ. 
Gains of cardiorespiratory fitness with arm-crank training in spinally disabled men
, 
Can J Sport Sci
, 
1991
, vol. 
 (pg. 
64
-
72
)
Google Scholar
 
Hicks AL, Martin KA, Ditor DS, et al. Longterm exercise training in persons with spinal cord injury: effects on strength, arm ergometry performance and psychological well-being. Spinal Cord. 2003;41(1):34–43, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3101389).
et, al. 
Longterm exercise training in persons with spinal cord injury: effects on strength, arm ergometry performance and psychological well-being
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
2003
, vol. 
 (pg. 
34
-
43
)
Google Scholar
 
Hooker SP, Wells CL. Effects of low- and moderate-intensity training in spinal cord-injured persons. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1989;21(1):18–22, (doi: 10.1249/00005768-198902000-00004).
Wells, CL. 
Effects of low- and moderate-intensity training in spinal cord-injured persons
, 
Med Sci Sports Exerc
, 
1989
, vol. 
 (pg. 
18
-
22
)
Google Scholar
 
Hjeltnes N, Wallberg-Henriksson H. Improved work capacity but unchanged peak oxygen uptake during primary rehabilitation in tetraplegic patients. Spinal Cord. 1998;36(10):691–698, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3100687).
Wallberg-Henriksson, H. 
Improved work capacity but unchanged peak oxygen uptake during primary rehabilitation in tetraplegic patients
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
1998
, vol. 
 (pg. 
691
-
698
)
Google Scholar
 
DiCarlo SE. Effect of arm ergometry training on wheelchair propulsion endurance of individuals with quadriplegia. Phys Ther. 1988;68(1):40–44.
DiCarlo, SE. 
Effect of arm ergometry training on wheelchair propulsion endurance of individuals with quadriplegia
, 
Phys Ther
, 
1988
, vol. 
 (pg. 
40
-
44
)
Google Scholar
 
Bizzarini E, Saccavini M, Lipanje F, et al. Exercise prescription in subjects with spinal cord injuries. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86(6):1170–1175, (doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2004.11.014).
et, al. 
Exercise prescription in subjects with spinal cord injuries
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
2005
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1170
-
1175
)
Google Scholar
 
Tordi N, Dugue B, Klupzinski D, et al. Interval training program on a wheelchair ergometer for paraplegic subjects. Spinal Cord. 2001; 39(10):532–537, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3101206).
et, al. 
Interval training program on a wheelchair ergometer for paraplegic subjects
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
2001
, vol. 
 (pg. 
532
-
537
)
Google Scholar
 
Stewart BG, Tarnopolsky MA, Hicks AL, et al. Treadmill training-induced adaptations in muscle phenotype in persons with incomplete spinal cord injury. Muscle Nerve. 2004;30(1):61–68, (doi: 10.1002/mus.20048).
et, al. 
Treadmill training-induced adaptations in muscle phenotype in persons with incomplete spinal cord injury
, 
Muscle Nerve
, 
2004
, vol. 
 (pg. 
61
-
68
)
Google Scholar
 
Warburton DE, Haykowsky MJ, Quinney HA, Humen DP, Teo KK. Reliability and validity of measures of cardiac output during incremental to maximal aerobic exercise. Part I: conventional techniques. Sports Med. 1999;27(1):23–41, (doi: 10.2165/00007256-199927010-00003).
Teo, KK. 
Reliability and validity of measures of cardiac output during incremental to maximal aerobic exercise. Part I: conventional techniques
, 
Sports Med
, 
1999
, vol. 
 (pg. 
23
-
41
)
Google Scholar
 
Warburton DE, Haykowsky MJ, Quinney HA, Humen DP, Teo KK. Reliability and validity of measures of cardiac output during incremental to maximal aerobic exercise. Part II: novel techniques and new advances. Sports Med. 1999;27(4):241–260, (doi: 10.2165/00007256-199927040-00004).
Teo, KK. 
Reliability and validity of measures of cardiac output during incremental to maximal aerobic exercise. Part II: novel techniques and new advances
, 
Sports Med
, 
1999
, vol. 
 (pg. 
241
-
260
)
Google Scholar
 
Cooney MM, Walker JB. Hydraulic resistance exercise benefits cardiovascular fitness of spinal cord injured. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1986;18(5):522–525.
Walker, JB. 
Hydraulic resistance exercise benefits cardiovascular fitness of spinal cord injured
, 
Med Sci Sports Exerc
, 
1986
, vol. 
 (pg. 
522
-
525
)
Google Scholar
 
Jacobs PL, Nash MS, Rusinowski JW. Circuit training provides cardiorespiratory and strength benefits in persons with paraplegia. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(5):711–717.
Rusinowski, JW. 
Circuit training provides cardiorespiratory and strength benefits in persons with paraplegia
, 
Med Sci Sports Exerc
, 
2001
, vol. 
 (pg. 
711
-
717
)
Google Scholar
 
Hooker SP, Figoni SF, Rodgers MM, et al. Physiologic effects of electrical stimulation leg cycle exercise training in spinal cord injured persons. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1992;73(5):470–476.
et, al. 
Physiologic effects of electrical stimulation leg cycle exercise training in spinal cord injured persons
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
1992
, vol. 
 (pg. 
470
-
476
)
Google Scholar
 
Faghri PD, Glaser RM, Figoni SF. Functional electrical stimulation leg cycle ergometer exercise: training effects on cardiorespiratory responses of spinal cord injured subjects at rest and during submaximal exercise. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1992;73(11):1085–1093.
Figoni, SF. 
Functional electrical stimulation leg cycle ergometer exercise: training effects on cardiorespiratory responses of spinal cord injured subjects at rest and during submaximal exercise
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
1992
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1085
-
1093
)
Google Scholar
 
Crameri RM, Cooper P, Sinclair PJ, Bryant G, Weston A. Effect of load during electrical stimulation training in spinal cord injury. Muscle Nerve. 2004;29(1):104–111, (doi: 10.1002/mus.10522).
Weston, A. 
Effect of load during electrical stimulation training in spinal cord injury
, 
Muscle Nerve
, 
2004
, vol. 
 (pg. 
104
-
111
)
Google Scholar
 
Mutton DL, Scremin AM, Barstow TJ, et al. Physiologic responses during functional electrical stimulation leg cycling and hybrid exercise in spinal cord injured subjects. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1997;78(7):712–718, (doi: 10.1016/S0003-9993(97)90078-2).
et, al. 
Physiologic responses during functional electrical stimulation leg cycling and hybrid exercise in spinal cord injured subjects
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
1997
, vol. 
 (pg. 
712
-
718
)
Google Scholar
 
Krauss JC, Robergs RA, Depaepe JL, et al. Effects of electrical stimulation and upper body training after spinal cord injury. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993;25(9):1054–1061.
et, al. 
Effects of electrical stimulation and upper body training after spinal cord injury
, 
Med Sci Sports Exerc
, 
1993
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1054
-
1061
)
Google Scholar
 
Gurney AB, Robergs RA, Aisenbrey J, Cordova JC, McClanahan L. Detraining from total body exercise ergometry in individuals with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 1998;36(11):782–789, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3100698).
McClanahan, L. 
Detraining from total body exercise ergometry in individuals with spinal cord injury
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
1998
, vol. 
 (pg. 
782
-
789
)
Google Scholar
 
Andersen JL, Mohr T, Biering-Sorensen F, Galbo H, Kjaer M. Myosin heavy chain isoform transformation in single fibres from m. vastus lateralis in spinal cord injured individuals: effects of long-term functional electrical stimulation (FES). Pflugers Arch. 1996;431(4):513–518, (doi: 10.1007/s004240050029).
Kjaer, M. 
Myosin heavy chain isoform transformation in single fibres from m. vastus lateralis in spinal cord injured individuals: effects of long-term functional electrical stimulation (FES)
, 
Pflugers Arch
, 
1996
, vol. 
 (pg. 
513
-
518
)
Google Scholar
 
Mohr T, Andersen JL, Biering-Sorensen F, et al. Long-term adaptation to electrically induced cycle training in severe spinal cord injured individuals. Spinal Cord. 1997;35(1):1–16, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3100343).
et, al. 
Long-term adaptation to electrically induced cycle training in severe spinal cord injured individuals
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
1997
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1
-
16
)
Google Scholar
 
Crameri RM, Weston A, Climstein M, Davis GM, Sutton JR. Effects of electrical stimulationinduced leg training on skeletal muscle adaptability in spinal cord injury. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2002;12(5):316–322, (doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0838.2002.20106.x).
Sutton, JR. 
Effects of electrical stimulationinduced leg training on skeletal muscle adaptability in spinal cord injury
, 
Scand J Med Sci Sports
, 
2002
, vol. 
 (pg. 
316
-
322
)
Google Scholar
 
Warburton DE, Gledhill N, Quinney A. Musculoskeletal fitness and health. Can J Appl Physiol. 2001;26(2):217–237.
Quinney, A. 
Musculoskeletal fitness and health
, 
Can J Appl Physiol
, 
2001
, vol. 
 (pg. 
217
-
237
)
Google Scholar
 
Warburton DE, Gledhill N, Quinney A. The effects of changes in musculoskeletal fitness on health. Can J Appl Physiol. 2001;26(2):161–216.
Quinney, A. 
The effects of changes in musculoskeletal fitness on health
, 
Can J Appl Physiol
, 
2001
, vol. 
 (pg. 
161
-
216
)
Google Scholar
 
Warburton DE, Nicol CW, Bredin SS. Prescribing exercise as preventive therapy. CMAJ. 2006;174(7):961–974.
Bredin, SS. 
Prescribing exercise as preventive therapy
, 
CMAJ
, 
2006
, vol. 
 (pg. 
961
-
974
)
Google Scholar
 
Hurley BF, Hagberg JM. Optimizing health in older persons: aerobic or strength training? Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1998;26:61–89.
Hagberg, JM. 
Optimizing health in older persons: aerobic or strength training
, 
Exerc Sport Sci Rev
, 
1998
, vol. 
 (pg. 
61
-
89
)
Google Scholar
 
Mahoney ET, Bickel CS, Elder C, et al. Changes in skeletal muscle size and glucose tolerance with electrically stimulated resistance training in subjects with chronic spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86(7):1502–1504, (doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2004.12.021).
et, al. 
Changes in skeletal muscle size and glucose tolerance with electrically stimulated resistance training in subjects with chronic spinal cord injury
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
2005
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1502
-
1504
)
Google Scholar
 
Hjeltnes N, Galuska D, Bjornholm M, et al. Exercise-induced overexpression of key regulatory proteins involved in glucose uptake and metabolism in tetraplegic persons: molecular mechanism for improved glucose homeostasis. FASEB J. 1998;12(15):1701–1712.
et, al. 
Exercise-induced overexpression of key regulatory proteins involved in glucose uptake and metabolism in tetraplegic persons: molecular mechanism for improved glucose homeostasis
, 
FASEB J
, 
1998
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1701
-
1712
)
Google Scholar
 
Chilibeck PD, Bell G, Jeon J, et al. Functional electrical stimulation exercise increases GLUT-1 and GLUT-4 in paralyzed skeletal muscle. Metabolism. 1999;48(11):1409–1413, (doi: 10.1016/S0026-0495(99)90151-8).
Functional electrical stimulation exercise increases GLUT-1 and GLUT-4 in paralyzed skeletal muscle
, 
Metabolism
, vol. 
48
 (pg. 
1409
-
1413
)
Jeon JY, Weiss CB, Steadward RD, et al. Improved glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity after electrical stimulation-assisted cycling in people with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 2002;40(3):110–117, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3101260).
et, al. 
Improved glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity after electrical stimulation-assisted cycling in people with spinal cord injury
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
2002
, vol. 
 (pg. 
110
-
117
)
Google Scholar
 
Mohr T, Dela F, Handberg A, et al. Insulin action and long-term electrically induced training in individuals with spinal cord injuries. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(8):1247–1252, (doi: 10.1097/00005768-200108000-00001).
et, al. 
Insulin action and long-term electrically induced training in individuals with spinal cord injuries
, 
Med Sci Sports Exerc
, 
2001
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1247
-
1252
)
Google Scholar
 
Bauman WA, Spungen AM, Raza M, et al. Coronary artery disease: metabolic risk factors and latent disease in individuals with paraplegia. Mt Sinai J Med. 1992;59(2):163–168.
et, al. 
Coronary artery disease: metabolic risk factors and latent disease in individuals with paraplegia
, 
Mt Sinai J Med
, 
1992
, vol. 
 (pg. 
163
-
168
)
Google Scholar
 
Brenes G, Dearwater S, Shapera R, LaPorte RE, Collins E. High density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations in physically active and sedentary spinal cord injured patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1986;67(7):445–450.
Collins, E. 
High density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations in physically active and sedentary spinal cord injured patients
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
1986
, vol. 
 (pg. 
445
-
450
)
Google Scholar
 
Dearwater SR, LaPorte RE, Robertson RJ, et al. Activity in the spinal cord-injured patient: an epidemiologic analysis of metabolic parameters. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1986;18(5):541–544.
et, al. 
Activity in the spinal cord-injured patient: an epidemiologic analysis of metabolic parameters
, 
Med Sci Sports Exerc
, 
1986
, vol. 
 (pg. 
541
-
544
)
Google Scholar
 
Maki KC, Briones ER, Langbein WE, et al. Associations between serum lipids and indicators of adiposity in men with spinal cord injury. Paraplegia. 1995;33(2):102–109.
et, al. 
Associations between serum lipids and indicators of adiposity in men with spinal cord injury
, 
Paraplegia
, 
1995
, vol. 
 (pg. 
102
-
109
)
Google Scholar
 
Krum H, Howes LG, Brown DJ, et al. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in chronic spinal cord injury patients. Paraplegia. 1992;30(6):381–388.
et, al. 
Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in chronic spinal cord injury patients
, 
Paraplegia
, 
1992
, vol. 
 (pg. 
381
-
388
)
Google Scholar
 
Dallmeijer AJ, Hopman MT, van der Woude LH. Lipid, lipoprotein, and apolipoprotein profiles in active and sedentary men with tetraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1997; 78(11): 1173–1176, (doi: 10.1016/S0003-9993(97)90327-0).
van der Woude, LH. 
Lipid, lipoprotein, and apolipoprotein profiles in active and sedentary men with tetraplegia
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
1997
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1173
-
1176
)
Google Scholar
 
El-Sayed MS, Younesian A. Lipid profiles are influenced by arm cranking exercise and training in individuals with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 2005;43(5):299–305, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3101698).
Younesian, A. 
Lipid profiles are influenced by arm cranking exercise and training in individuals with spinal cord injury
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
2005
, vol. 
 (pg. 
299
-
305
)
Google Scholar
 
Solomonow M, Reisin E, Aguilar E, et al. Reciprocating gait orthosis powered with electrical muscle stimulation (RGO II). Part II: medical evaluation of 70 paraplegic patients. Orthopedics. 1997;20(5):411–418.
Reciprocating gait orthosis powered with electrical muscle stimulation (RGO II). Part II: medical evaluation of 70 paraplegic patients
, 
Orthopedics
, vol. 
20
 (pg. 
411
-
418
)
Nash MS, Jacobs PL, Mendez AJ, Goldberg RB. Circuit resistance training improves the atherogenic lipid profiles of persons with chronic paraplegia. J Spinal Cord Med. 2001;24(1):2–9.
Goldberg, RB. 
Circuit resistance training improves the atherogenic lipid profiles of persons with chronic paraplegia
, 
J Spinal Cord Med
, 
2001
, vol. 
 (pg. 
2
-
9
)
Google Scholar
 
Pollack SF, Axen K, Spielholz N, et al. Aerobic training effects of electrically induced lower extremity exercises in spinal cord injured people. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1989;70(3): 214–219.
et, al. 
Aerobic training effects of electrically induced lower extremity exercises in spinal cord injured people
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
1989
, vol. 
 (pg. 
214
-
219
)
Google Scholar
 
Barstow TJ, Scremin AM, Mutton DL, et al. Changes in gas exchange kinetics with training in patients with spinal cord injury. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996;28(10):1221–1228.
et, al. 
Changes in gas exchange kinetics with training in patients with spinal cord injury
, 
Med Sci Sports Exerc
, 
1996
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1221
-
1228
)
Google Scholar
 
Thijssen DH, Heesterbeek P, van Kuppevelt DJ, Duysens J, Hopman MT. Local vascular adaptations after hybrid training in spinal cord-injured subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005; 37(7):1112–1118, (doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000170126.30868.fb).
Hopman, MT. 
Local vascular adaptations after hybrid training in spinal cord-injured subjects
, 
Med Sci Sports Exerc
, 
2005
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1112
-
1118
)
Google Scholar
 
Wheeler GD, Andrews B, Lederer R, et al. Functional electric stimulation-assisted rowing: increasing cardiovascular fitness through functional electric stimulation rowing training in persons with spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83(8):1093–1099, (doi: 10.1053/apmr.2002.33656).
et, al. 
Functional electric stimulation-assisted rowing: increasing cardiovascular fitness through functional electric stimulation rowing training in persons with spinal cord injury
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
2002
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1093
-
1099
)
Google Scholar
 
Hjeltnes N, Aksnes AK, Birkeland KI, et al. Improved body composition after 8 wk of electrically stimulated leg cycling in tetraplegic patients. Am J Physiol. 1997;273(3 pt 2):R1072–1079.
Improved body composition after 8 wk of electrically stimulated leg cycling in tetraplegic patients
, 
Am J Physiol.
, vol. 
273
 (pg. 
R1072
-
1079
)
Ragnarsson KT, Pollack S, O’Daniel W Jr, et al. Clinical evaluation of computerized functional electrical stimulation after spinal cord injury: a multicenter pilot study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1988;69(9):672–677.
et, al. 
Clinical evaluation of computerized functional electrical stimulation after spinal cord injury: a multicenter pilot study
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
1988
, vol. 
 (pg. 
672
-
677
)
Google Scholar
 
Gerrits HL, de Haan A, Sargeant AJ, van Langen H, Hopman MT. Peripheral vascular changes after electrically stimulated cycle training in people with spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001;82(6):832–839, (doi: 10.1053/apmr.2001.23305).
Hopman, MT. 
Peripheral vascular changes after electrically stimulated cycle training in people with spinal cord injury
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
2001
, vol. 
 (pg. 
832
-
839
)
Google Scholar
 
Thijssen DH, Ellenkamp R, Smits P, Hopman MT. Rapid vascular adaptations to training and detraining in persons with spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2006;87(4):474–481, (doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2005.11.005).
Hopman, MT. 
Rapid vascular adaptations to training and detraining in persons with spinal cord injury
, 
Arch Phys Med Rehabil
, 
2006
, vol. 
 (pg. 
474
-
481
)
Google Scholar
 
Sabatier MJ, Stoner L, Mahoney ET, et al. Electrically stimulated resistance training in SCI individuals increases muscle fatigue resistance but not femoral artery size or blood flow. Spinal Cord. 2006;44(4):227–233, (doi: 10.1038/sj.sc.3101834).
et, al. 
Electrically stimulated resistance training in SCI individuals increases muscle fatigue resistance but not femoral artery size or blood flow
, 
Spinal Cord
, 
2006
, vol. 
 (pg. 
227
-
233
)
Google Scholar
 
de Groot P, Crozier J, Rakobowchuk M, Hopman M, MacDonald M. Electrical stimulation alters FMD and arterial compliance in extremely inactive legs. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37(8):1356–1364, (doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000174890.13395.e7).
MacDonald, M. 
Electrical stimulation alters FMD and arterial compliance in extremely inactive legs
, 
Med Sci Sports Exerc
, 
2005
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1356
-
1364
)
Google Scholar
 
DiCarlo SE, Supp MD, Taylor HC. Effect of arm ergometry training on physical work capacity of individuals with spinal cord injuries. Phys Ther. 1983;63(7):1104–1107.
Taylor, HC. 
Effect of arm ergometry training on physical work capacity of individuals with spinal cord injuries
, 
Phys Ther
, 
1983
, vol. 
 (pg. 
1104
-
1107
)
Google Scholar
 
Gass GC, Watson J, Camp EM, et al. The effects of physical training on high level spinal lesion patients. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1980;12(2):61–65.
et, al. 
The effects of physical training on high level spinal lesion patients
, 
Scand J Rehabil Med
, 
1980
, vol. 
 (pg. 
61
-
65
)
Google Scholar
 
Jacobs PL, Mahoney ET, Nash MS, Green BA. Circuit resistance training in persons with complete paraplegia. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2002;39(1):21–28.
Green, BA. 
Circuit resistance training in persons with complete paraplegia
, 
J Rehabil Res Dev
, 
2002
, vol. 
 (pg. 
21
-
28
)
Google Scholar
 
Sutbeyaz ST, Koseoglu BF, Gokkaya NK. The combined effects of controlled breathing techniques and ventilatory and upper extremity muscle exercise on cardiopulmonary responses in patients with spinal cord injury. Int J Rehabil Res. 2005;28(3):273–276, (doi: 10.1097/00004356-200509000-00012).
Gokkaya, NK. 
The combined effects of controlled breathing techniques and ventilatory and upper extremity muscle exercise on cardiopulmonary responses in patients with spinal cord injury
, 
Int J Rehabil Res
, 
2005
, vol. 
 (pg. 
273
-
276
)
Google Scholar
 
El-Sayed MS, Younesian A, Rahman K, Ismail FM, El-Sayed Ali Z. The effects of arm cranking exercise and training on platelet aggregation in male spinal cord individuals. Thromb Res. 2004;113(2):129–136, (doi: 10.1016/j.thromres.2004.02.014).
El-Sayed Ali, Z. 
The effects of arm cranking exercise and training on platelet aggregation in male spinal cord individuals
, 
Thromb Res
, 
2004
, vol. 
 (pg. 
129
-
136
)
Google Scholar
 
This content is only available as a PDF.