Background: Studies regarding subjective well-being (SWB) after spinal cord injury (SCI) are increasing in recent years, but little has been contributed to the relationship between income and SWB. Objective: By using longitudinal data, we want to identify (1) the overall trend in SWB over a 10-year period; (2) the association between household income and SWB at baseline; (3) the variation of the trajectory of SWB over 10 years among different household income groups; and (4) the variation of change rates of SWB over 10 years among different household income groups. Methods: We conducted a cohort study, including 434 participants who completed 3 measurements in 1998, 2003, and 2008. They were identified from outpatient records of 2 midwestern hospitals and a southeastern specialty hospital. Results: People with lower household income experienced more life problems and less life satisfaction at the baseline measurement. During the 10-year period, their health problems and environmental barriers significantly increased compared to persons with higher income. Increasing vocational satisfaction was the only favorable change for the lower income group. Conclusions: There were consistent disparities in SWB related to income, and these typically persisted over time. Therefore, with the exception of vocational satisfaction, few changes may be anticipated in SWB that would narrow the gap between high and low income.

Phelan JC, Link BG, Diex-Roux A, Kawachi I, Levin B. “Fundamental causes” of social inequalities in mortality: A test of the theory. J Health Soc Behav. 2004;45:265–285.
“Fundamental causes” of social inequalities in mortality: A test of the theory
J Health Soc Behav.
, vol. 
45
 (pg. 
265
-
285
)
Lahelma E, Martikainen P, Laaksonen M, Aittomäki A. Pathways between socioeconomic determinants of health. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2004;58:327–332.
Pathways between socioeconomic determinants of health
J Epidemiol Community Health.
, vol. 
58
 (pg. 
327
-
332
)
Lantz PM, Golberstein E, House JS, Morenoff J. Socioeconomic and behavioral risk factors for mortality in a national 19-year prospective study of US adults. Soc Sci Med (1982). 2010;70(10):1558–1566.
Socioeconomic and behavioral risk factors for mortality in a national 19-year prospective study of US adults
Soc Sci Med (1982).
, vol. 
70
 (pg. 
1558
-
1566
)
Lantz PM, House JS, Lepkowski JM, Williams DR, Mero RP, Chen J. Socioeconomic factors, health behaviors, and mortality: Results from a nationally representative prospective study of US adults. JAMA. 1998;279(21):1703–1708.
Socioeconomic factors, health behaviors, and mortality: Results from a nationally representative prospective study of US adults
JAMA.
, vol. 
279
 (pg. 
1703
-
1708
)
Davey Smith G, Hard C, Blane D, Gillis D, Hawthorne V. Lifetime socioeconomic position and mortality: Prospective observational study. Br Med J. 1997;314:547.
Lifetime socioeconomic position and mortality: Prospective observational study
Br Med J.
, vol. 
314
 
Mirowsky J, Ross CE, Reynolds J. Links between social status and health status. In: Bird CE, Conrad P, Freemont AM, eds. Handbook of Medical Sociology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; 2000:47–67.
Links between social status and health status. In
Handbook of Medical Sociology.
(pg. 
47
-
67
)
Link BG, Phelan J. Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease. J Health Soc Behav. 1995;35(extra issue):80–94.
Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease
J Health Soc Behav.
, vol. 
35(extra issue)
 (pg. 
80
-
94
)
Cummins RA. Personal income and subjective well-being: A review. J Happiness Studies. 2000;1(2):133–158.
Personal income and subjective well-being: A review
J Happiness Studies.
, vol. 
1
 (pg. 
133
-
158
)
Lucas RE, Schimmack U. Income and well-being: How big is the gap between the rich and the poor?J Res Personality. 2009;43(1):75–78.
Income and well-being: How big is the gap between the rich and the poor?
J Res Personality.
, vol. 
43
 (pg. 
75
-
78
)
Campbell A, Converse PE, Rodgers WL. The Quality of American Life: Perceptions, Evaluations, and Satisfaction. New York: Russell Sage Foundation; 1976.
Handbook of Medical Sociology.
Diener E, Suh EM, Lucas RE, Smith HL. Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychol Bull. 1999;125(2):276–302.
Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress
Psychol Bull.
, vol. 
125
 (pg. 
276
-
302
)
King LA, Napa CK. What makes a life good?J Personality Soc Psychol. 1998;75(1):156–165.
What makes a life good?
J Personality Soc Psychol.
, vol. 
75
 (pg. 
156
-
165
)
Boyce CJ, Brown GD, Moore SC. Money and happiness rank of income, not income, affects life satisfaction. Psychol Sci. 2010;21(4):471–475.
Money and happiness rank of income, not income, affects life satisfaction
Psychol Sci.
, vol. 
21
 (pg. 
471
-
475
)
Clark AE, Oswald AJ. Satisfaction and comparison income. J Public Econ. 1996;61(3):359–381.
Satisfaction and comparison income
J Public Econ.
, vol. 
61
 (pg. 
359
-
381
)
Easterlin RA. Will raising the incomes of all increase the happiness of all?J Econ Behav Org. 1995;27(1):35–47.
Will raising the incomes of all increase the happiness of all?
J Econ Behav Org.
, vol. 
27
 (pg. 
35
-
47
)
Decker SD, Schulz R. Correlates of life satisfaction and depression in middle aged and elderly spinal cord injured persons. Am Occup Ther. 1985;39(11):740–745.
Correlates of life satisfaction and depression in middle aged and elderly spinal cord injured persons
Am Occup Ther.
, vol. 
39
 (pg. 
740
-
745
)
Dowler R, Richards JS, Putzke JD, Gordon W, Tate D. Impact of demographic and medical factors on satisfaction with life after spinal cord injury: A normative study. J Spinal Cord Med 2001;24(2):87–91.
Impact of demographic and medical factors on satisfaction with life after spinal cord injury: A normative study
J Spinal Cord Med
, vol. 
24
 (pg. 
87
-
91
)
McColl MA. Expectations of health, independence, and quality of life among aging spinal cord-injured adults. Assist Technol. 1999;11:130–136.
Expectations of health, independence, and quality of life among aging spinal cord-injured adults
Assist Technol.
, vol. 
11
 (pg. 
130
-
136
)
Crewe NM, Krause JS. Marital status and adjustment to spinal cord injury. J Am Paraplegia Soc. 1992;15(1):14–18.
Marital status and adjustment to spinal cord injury
J Am Paraplegia Soc.
, vol. 
15
 (pg. 
14
-
18
)
Kinney WB, Coyle CP. Predicting life satisfaction among adults with physical disabilities. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1992;73(9):863–869.
Predicting life satisfaction among adults with physical disabilities
Arch Phys Med Rehabil.
, vol. 
73
 (pg. 
863
-
869
)
Krause JS. Subjective well-being after spinal cord injury: Relationship to gender, race-ethnicity, and chronologic age. Rehabil Psychol. 1998;43(4):282–296.
Subjective well-being after spinal cord injury: Relationship to gender, race-ethnicity, and chronologic age
Rehabil Psychol.
, vol. 
43
 (pg. 
282
-
296
)
Post M, de Witte LP, van Asbeck FW, van Dijk AJ, Schrijvers JP. Predictors of health status and life satisfaction in spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehab. 1998;79:395–401.
Predictors of health status and life satisfaction in spinal cord injury
Arch Phys Med Rehab.
, vol. 
79
 (pg. 
395
-
401
)
Putzke JD, Richards JS, Hicken BL, DeVivo MJ. Predictors of life satisfaction: A spinal cord injury cohort study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83(4):555–561.
Predictors of life satisfaction: A spinal cord injury cohort study
Arch Phys Med Rehabil.
, vol. 
83
 (pg. 
555
-
561
)
Vogel LC, Klaas SJ, Lubicky JP, Anderson CJ. Long-term outcomes and life satisfaction for adults who had pediatric spinal cord injuries. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998;79:1496–1503.
Long-term outcomes and life satisfaction for adults who had pediatric spinal cord injuries
Arch Phys Med Rehabil.
, vol. 
79
 (pg. 
1496
-
1503
)
McColl MA, Stirling P, Walker J, Wilkins R, Corey P. Expectations of independence and life satisfaction among aging spinal cord injured adults. Disabil Rehabil. 1999;221(5-6):231–240.
Expectations of independence and life satisfaction among aging spinal cord injured adults
Disabil Rehabil.
, vol. 
221
 (pg. 
231
-
240
)
McColl M, Rosenthal C. A model of resource needs of aging spinal cord injured men. Paraplegia. 1994;32:261–270.
A model of resource needs of aging spinal cord injured men
Paraplegia.
, vol. 
32
 (pg. 
261
-
270
)
Whiteneck G, Meade MA, Dijkers M, Tate DG, Bushnik T, Forchheimer M. Environmental factors and their role in participation and life satisfaction after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85:1793–1803.
Environmental factors and their role in participation and life satisfaction after spinal cord injury
Arch Phys Med Rehabil.
, vol. 
85
 (pg. 
1793
-
1803
)
Schulz R, Decker SD. Long term adjustment to physical disability: The role of social support, perceived control and self-blame. J Personality Soc Psychol. 1985;48:1162–1172.
Long term adjustment to physical disability: The role of social support, perceived control and self-blame
J Personality Soc Psychol.
, vol. 
48
 (pg. 
1162
-
1172
)
Crisp R. The long term adjustment of 60 persons with spinal cord injury. Australian Psychol. 1992;27:43–47.
The long term adjustment of 60 persons with spinal cord injury
Australian Psychol.
, vol. 
27
 (pg. 
43
-
47
)
Hetz SP, Latimer AE, Arbour-Nicitopoulos KP, Martin Ginis KA. Secondary complications and subjective well-being in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury: Associations with self-reported adiposity. Spinal Cord. 2011;49(2):266–272.
Secondary complications and subjective well-being in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury: Associations with self-reported adiposity
Spinal Cord.
, vol. 
49
 (pg. 
266
-
272
)
Krause JS. Dimensions of subjective well-being after spinal cord injury: An empirical analysis by gender and race/ethnicity. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1998;79(8):900–909.
Dimensions of subjective well-being after spinal cord injury: An empirical analysis by gender and race/ethnicity
Arch Phys Med Rehabil.
, vol. 
79
 (pg. 
900
-
909
)
Krause JS. Intercorrelations between secondary conditions and life adjustment among people with spinal cord injuries. SCI Psychosoc Process. 1998;11:3–7.
Intercorrelations between secondary conditions and life adjustment among people with spinal cord injuries
SCI Psychosoc Process.
, vol. 
11
 (pg. 
3
-
7
)
Diener E, Emmons RA, Larsen RJ, Griffin S. The Satisfaction With Life Scale. J Personality Assess. 1985;49:71–75.
The Satisfaction With Life Scale
J Personality Assess.
, vol. 
49
 (pg. 
71
-
75
)
Krause JS, Reed KS. Life satisfaction and self-reported problems after spinal cord injury: Measurement of underlying dimensions. Rehabil Psychol. 2009;54(3):343–350.
Life satisfaction and self-reported problems after spinal cord injury: Measurement of underlying dimensions
Rehabil Psychol.
, vol. 
54
 (pg. 
343
-
350
)
Krause JS. Aging, life satisfaction, and self-reported problems among participants with spinal cord injury. Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil. 2010;15:34–40.
Aging, life satisfaction, and self-reported problems among participants with spinal cord injury
Top Spinal Cord Inj Rehabil.
, vol. 
15
 (pg. 
34
-
40
)
Evenson KR, McGinn AP. Test-retest reliability of a questionnaire to assess physical environmental factors pertaining to physical activity. Int J Behav Nutri Phys Act. 2005;2(1):7.
Test-retest reliability of a questionnaire to assess physical environmental factors pertaining to physical activity
Int J Behav Nutri Phys Act.
, vol. 
2
 
Landis JR, Koch G. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics. 1977;33:159–174.
The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data
Biometrics.
, vol. 
33
 (pg. 
159
-
174
)
Young AE, Murphy GC. Employment status after spinal cord injury (1992-2005): A review with implications for interpretation, evaluation, further research, and clinical practice. Int J Rehabil Res. 2009;32(1):1–11.
Employment status after spinal cord injury (1992-2005): A review with implications for interpretation, evaluation, further research, and clinical practice
Int J Rehabil Res.
, vol. 
32
 (pg. 
1
-
11
)
Yasuda S, Wehman P, Targett P, Cifu DX, West M. Return to work after spinal cord injury: A review of recent research. NeuroRehabil. 2002;17(3):177–186.
NeuroRehabil.
, vol. 
17
 (pg. 
177
-
186
)
Krause JS, Kewman D, DeVivo MJ, et al. Employment after spinal cord injury: An analysis of cases from the Model Spinal Cord Injury Systems. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80(11):1492–1500.
Employment after spinal cord injury: An analysis of cases from the Model Spinal Cord Injury Systems
Arch Phys Med Rehabil.
, vol. 
80
 (pg. 
1492
-
1500
)
Dismuke CE, Krause JS, Terza JV. Racial disparities in poverty status among families of individuals with spinal cord injury. Pov Public Policy. 2011;3(1):article 9.
Racial disparities in poverty status among families of individuals with spinal cord injury
Pov Public Policy.
, vol. 
3
 
DeVivo MJ, Stover SL. Long term survival and causes of death. In: Stover SL, DeLisa JA, Whiteneck GG, eds. Spinal Cord Injury: Clinical Outcomes from the Model Systems. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers; 1995:289–316.
Long term survival and causes of death. In
Spinal Cord Injury: Clinical Outcomes from the Model Systems.
(pg. 
289
-
316
)
DeVivo MJ, Krause JS, Lammertse DP. Recent trends in mortality and causes of death among persons with spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999;80(11):1411–1419.
Recent trends in mortality and causes of death among persons with spinal cord injury
Arch Phys Med Rehabil.
, vol. 
80
 (pg. 
1411
-
1419
)
This content is only available as a PDF.